THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS 
IN  CHINA 


•v 


BY 

IDA  BELLE  LEWIS,  Ph  D. 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTION  TO  EDUCATION,  NO.  104 


PUBLISHED  BY 

{Eearfiertf  College,  Columbia  ®nibersitp 

NEW  YORK  CITY 
1919 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS  IN  CHINA 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 
in  2016 


https://archive.org/details/educationofgirls00lewi_0 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS 
IN  CHINA 


BY 

IDA  BELLE  LEWIS,  Ph.D. 


| FlB  IS  19 24 


X$?/0SICiL  %if0 


TEACHERS  COLLEGE,  COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY 
CONTRIBUTION  TO  EDUCATION,  NO.  104 


PUBLISHED  BY 

Ceacfter*  College,  Columbia  ®nib«rsitp 

NEW  YORK  CITY 
1919 


Copyright,  1919 

By 

IDA  BELLE  LEWIS 


TO  MY 

FATHER  AND  MOTHER 


PREFACE 


This  study  of  The  Education  of  Girls  in  China  has  been  made 
possible  only  by  the  cooperation  of  many  friends,  Chinese  and 
American,  in  this  country  and  in  China.  All  have  given  un- 
sparingly of  their  time  and  advice,  and  to  each  one  the  writer 
acknowledges  her  indebtedness. 

Especially  is  gratitude  due  to  Mr.  T.  H.  Fu,  the  Minister  of 
Education  of  China,  and  to  Mr.  T.  T.  Wang  and  Mr.  U.  Y.  Yen 
of  the  Educational  Mission  at  Washington  for  courteous  supply 
of  rare  documents  and  generous  answers  to  all  requests  for  in- 
formation; to  Mr.  E.  W.  Wallace,  Miss  Mary  Louise  Hamilton, 
Miss  Jennie  Baird  Bridenbaugh,  Miss  Lydia  Trimble  and  Miss 
Elizabeth  Farries  for  gathering  questionnaires  from  several  cen- 
ters in  China;  to  Dr.  I.  T.  Headland  and  Professor  S.  C.  Kiang 
for  permitting  the  use  of  unpublished  manuscript;  to  Mr.  W. 
T.  Tao  and  Mr.  T.  H.  Cheng  for  much  translation  and  many  sug- 
gestions in  gathering  material;  to  Bishop  W.  S.  Lewis,  of  China, 
Dr.  I.  L.  Kandel,  and  the  Misses  Clara  and  Laura  Chassell  for 
criticism  and  reading  of  manuscript.  To  Professor  G.  D.  Strayer, 
Professor  Paul  Monroe,  Dr.  T.  H.  P.  Sailer  and  Professor  Willy- 
stone  Goodsell,  of  Teachers  College,  the  writer  is  indebted  for 
guidance  and  inspiration  throughout  the  work. 


I.  B.  L. 


CONTENTS 


Introduction .- 1 

PART  I 

I.  The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 7 

The  Standards  for  the  Education  of  Women  Upheld  in  the  Classics: 

Moral,  Vocational,  Cultural  Standards 7 

The  Influence  of  These  Standards  on  Women  in  History 14 

The  Influence  of  the  Standards  on  Women  at  the  Present  Time  ...  1 7 

II.  The  Modern  Movement  in  Education 18 

Mission  Schools 18 

Private  Schools 25 

Government  Schools 28 

Relationship  between  Mission,  Private,  and  Government  Schools  35 

III.  The  Present  Situation 37 

The  Rapid  Rise  of  Girls’  Schools 37 

Elimination  in  the  Schools  as  a Whole 38 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Educational  Institutions 39 

Number  of  Girls  in  School  Compared  with  the  Total  Number  of 
Girls  of  School  Age 40 

PART  II 

I.  The  Scope  of  the  Investigation 42 

The  Method  of  Research 42 

The  Returns 43 

II.  The  Social  Environment  and  Aspirations  of  the  Chinese 

Schoolgirl 45 

Social  Status 45 

Economic  Status 48 

Home  Relationships 49 

Ambitions 54 

III.  The  Classification  of  Pupils 55 

Age  Distribution 55 

Amount  of  Under-Age,  Normal-Age,  and  Over-Age 60 

IV.  The  Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 67 

The  Subjects  Reported  by  the  Girls  of  Each  Grade 67 

An  Analysis  of  the  Curriculum  in  the  Light  of  the  Investigation ...  80 

The  Results  of  the  Investigation 82 

V.  Conclusion 84 

Summary  of  Results 84 

Recommendations 85 

Bibliography 90 


THE  EDUCATION  OF  GIRLS  IN  CHINA 

INTRODUCTION 

Education  in  China  has  for  many  centuries  been  a basic  factor 
in  nation  and  society.  Before  1901-03, 1 under  the  examination 
system,  education  in  the  classics  was  the  route  by  which  the  poor- 
est lad  in  the  most  remote  village  might  become  the  highest 
official  in  the  realm.  To  win  a degree,  and  thus  bring  honor  to 
parents  and  village,  was  the  epitome  of  filial  piety  and  social 
service.  The  lettered  man,  by  sheer  virtue  of  his  knowledge,  has 
always  received  from  the  entire  population  a deep,  almost  rev- 
erent respect.  Education  consisted  mainly  of  a mastery  of  the 
classics.2  Since  the  discovery  of  printing,3  each  succeeding  gen- 
eration in  China  has  added  to  its  literature  of  written  tradition, 
history,  poetry  and  philosophy.  The  people  thus  crystallized 
the  ideals  which  they  wrought  out  through  experience.  This 
literature,  especially  the  Five  Classics  and  the  Four  Books,  has 
had  a tremendous  influence  in  the  life  of  the  country.  Mem- 
orized and  expounded,  the  classics  were  the  only  text-books  of  the 
schools.  Scholars  deepened  their  thought  by  meditation  upon  the 
words  of  the  sages.  Morality  was  measured  by  that  of  the  an- 
cients. From  the  city  on  the  coast  to  the  tiny  village  near  the 
headwaters  of  the  Yangtze,  political,  family  and  individual  life 
was  consciously  tested  by  the  principles  of  the  Sacred  Books  of 
the  Middle  Kingdom.  Ethical  relationship  and  right  conduct  is 
the  theme  of  the  classics,  and  was  the  chief  subject  of  thought  and 
discussion  before  the  modern  era  in  education. 

The  new  education,  which  introduced  science,  modern  history, 
and,  in  mission  schools,  the  Bible,  from  the  West  over  seventy- 
five  years  ago,4  has  been  a powerful  force  in  recent  social  and 
political  change.  Throughout  the  entire  nation  its  effects  are 
evident  in  bringing  about  progressive  movements.  N 

1 Kuo,  P.  W.,  The  Chinese  System  of  Public  Education,  p.  78. 

2 Ibid.,  pp.  34-35. 

3 Fu  Hsi  (2852  b.  c.)  the  traditional  inventor  of  Chinese  writing  and  founder 
of  Chinese  history.  See  Pott,  F.  L.,  Sketch  of  Chinese  History,  p.  10. 

4 Ibid.,  p.  4. 


1 


2 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


As  a result  of  these  conflicting  ideals  of  education,  in  every 
Chinese  community  there  are  three  definite  social  groups:  the 
conservative,  still  dominated  by  the  ancient  educational  tradi- 
tions; the  progressive,  dominated  by  the  ideals  of  modern  educa- 
tion; and  the  changing,  those  who  are  moving  from  the  old  to 
the  new. 

The  conservative  group  includes  both  the  illiterate  men  and 
women  and  the  scholar  of  the  ancient  classics.  The  scholars 
wield  great  influence  in  their  own  communities.  They  often 
come  into  relationship  with  the  District  Magistrate,  which  makes 
them  men  of  mark  among  their  fellows.  They  are  constantly 
called  upon  to  assist  in  the  settlement  of  disputes.  At  weddings 
and  funerals,  they  are  always  in  places  of  honor,  due  to  their 
literary  degrees.1  Their  ideals  and  social  attitudes  have  been 
determined  by  the  standards  set  forth  in  the  ancient  literature  of 
China.  Because  they  believe  the  golden  age  of  China  to  have 
been  in  ancient  times  and  that  the  present  and  the  future  of  the 
nation  depend  upon  copying  closely  the  deeds  of  the  ancients, 
although  new  social  customs  are  being  rapidly  introduced  about 
them,  these  men  hold  tenaciously  to  the  past  and  conscientiously 
do  their  best  to  block  change. 

At  the  other  extreme  of  the  social  scale,  and  yet  exerting  a tre- 
mendous influence  on  public  opinion,  are  the  illiterate  artisans 
and  farmers.  These  people  cannot  read.  Quotations  from  the 
classics  repeated  to  them  by  the  village  literati  and  bits  of  homely 
philosophy  handed  down  by  wrord  of  mouth  from  generation  to 
generation  are  the  bases  for  their  intellectual  and  social  life. 
Their  travel  is  bounded  by  the  neighboring  villages.  The  wel- 
fare of  China  as  a nation  holds  little  meaning  for  them.  They 
neither  know  nor  care  about  politics  beyond  those  of  their  own 
village.2  Limited  to  this  narrow  horizon,  each  man  is  bound  by 
a fierce  economic  pressure  which  forces  him  to  work  hard  at  his 
trade  or  on  his  farm  from  early  dawn  until  dark.  “Contrary  to 

1 Smith,  A.  H.,  Village  Life  in  China,  pp.  132-133. 

2Cf.  Bashford,  J.  W.,  China,  pp.  307-308.  “The  people  have  not  been 
greatly  interested  in  the  national  government  . . . (because)  . . . 

the  general  government  did  not  confer  any  widespread  and  vital  benefit  upon 
the  people.”  However,  it  may  be  that  under  the  Republic  the  farmers  might 
have  known  or  heard  of  the  election  of  representatives  and  the  like.  (Mr. 
T.  H.  Cheng.) 


Introduction 


3 


the  theory  of  certain  sociologists,  this  intensified  struggle  for 
life  has  no  perceptible  effect  in  promoting  economic  or  social 
improvement.  It  makes  for  exertion  and  strain  but  not  for 
progress,  because  the  prime  means  of  progress  are  inventions  and 
discoveries,  and  it  is  just  these  that  bondslaves  to  poverty, 
under  the  stress  of  the  struggle  to  keep  alive,  are  not  able  to 
bring  forth.”1  “It  will  be  at  best  a couple  of  lifetimes  before 
the  plane  of  existence  of  the  common  people  will  at  all  approxi- 
mate that  of  the  common  people  of  America.”2  Starvation, 
debt,  and  beggary3  are  the  alternatives  to  their  deadening  toil. 
Because  of  these  circumstances  the  new  ideas  of  progress  can 
meet  with  little  response  from  the  great  mass  of  the  Chinese 
populace. 

Another  powerful  conservative  factor  in  society  is  illiterate 
womanhood.  Confined  to  one  village,  unable  to  read,  kept  sub- 
servient until  youth  is  over,  superstitious,  and  fearful  of  every- 
thing new,  the  women  of  most  households,  in  educated  circles  as 
well  as  among  the  middle  and  lower  classes,  are  bound  to  the 
traditions  of  the  locality.  Mothers,  to  whom  every  child  owes 
implicit  obedience,  refuse  to  allow  their  sons  to  attend  progressive 
schools.  If  a child  is  sick,  and  the  father  calls  a western  trained 
physician  who  administers  scientific  medicine,  the  mother  adds  a 
dose  of  concoction  guaranteed  by  the  village  medicine  man  in 
order  to  make  rapid  recovery  more  certain.  Wives  use  their 
whole  repertoire  of  schemes  in  order  to  thwart  any  project  of  their 
husbands  which  will  involve  experiment.  These  women  are  not 
to  be  blamed,  for  they  are  victims  of  a social  system.  But  they 
hang  like  millstones  upon  the  necks  of  their  families.  Until 
womankind  be  lifted  up,  China  must  needs  be  heavily  weighted 
in  her  struggle  for  progress. 

Opposed  in  thought  and  practice  to  the  conservative  element 
in  Chinese  society  is  an  alert,  progressive  social  group.  The 
remarkable  changes  recently  brought  about  in  every  phase  of 
Chinese  life  have  been  the  result  of  their  work.  Fearless,  often 
radical,  sometimes  uncompromising,  they  have  dared  break  the 
bonds  of  tradition,  have  questioned  and  denied  the  supremacy  of 

1 Ross,  E.  A.,  The  Changing  Chinese,  p.  92. 

2 Ibid.,  p.  69. 

3 There  are  few  beggars  in  a country  region  where  there  is  no  famine.  Busi- 
ness failures,  and  the  like,  go  to  the  city  to  beg. 


4 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


the  past  over  the  present.  They  have  even  paid  the  price  of 
unfilial  conduct,  when  it  has  been  necessary  to  bring  about  change. 
They  have  been  educated  in  modern  Chinese,  Japanese,  Ameri- 
can, and  European  schools.  They  have  travelled  extensively 
and  have  brought  home  a changed  conception  of  nation  and  so- 
ciety. In  their  open  struggle  towards  democracy,  they  are  push- 
ing universal  education,  political  freedom,  economic  progress  and 
social  reform.  The  men  who  belong  to  this  group  are  the  officials 
(often  lesser  officials  because  they  are  young  men),  the  business 
men,  the  physicians,  and  the  educators  of  China  to-day.  “A 
recent  census  of  Chinese  students  in  Peking  who  are  returned 
students  from  Europe,  America,  and  Japan  shows  that  there  are 
nearly  950  accounted  for  in  that  metropolis  and  that  of  these 
806  are  engaged  in  government  service.  They  constitute  23.2 
per  cent  of  the  total  number  of  departmental  officers,  and  in 
certain  departments,  such  as  the  Department  of  Agriculture 
where  special  training  is  particularly  valued,  they  number  nearly 
half  the  total  roll  of  employees.  Of  the  returned  students  now  in 
Peking,  522  are  from  Japan,  154  are  from  America,  99  are  from 
Great  Britain,  52  are  from  France,  47  are  from  Germany,  38  are 
from  Belgium,  9 are  from  Austria-Hungary,  7 are  from  Russia, 
and  1 is  from  Spain.  As  to  distribution  in  various  departments, 
it  is  estimated  that  in  the  Ministry  of  War,  34.1  per  cent  of  the 
total  number  of  officials  are  returned  students;  in  the  Ministry 
of  Education,  28.8  per  cent;  in  the  Forestry  Bureau,  32.2  per 
cent;  in  the  Ministry  of  Commerce,  48.6  per  cent;  in  the 
National  Supreme  Court,  40  per  cent;  in  the  Ministry  of 
Communications,  46.7  per  cent.  These  men  are  leaders  of 
New  China.”1 

Women  leaders  have  also  a claim  in  the  progress  of  China. 
During  the  Revolution  equal  suffrage  was  urged  with  much  vigor 
and  earnestness  upon  the  new  republic.  Women  are  prominent 
in  the  Red  Cross  units  of  Shanghai  and  Tientsin,  and  doubtless  of 
other  cities.  Many  of  the  Chinese  private  schools  are  managed 
entirely  by  women.  Contemporaneous  literature  is  enriched  by 
women’s  magazines,  some  of  which  are  edited  by  women.  Chi- 
nese women  physicians  stand  out  prominently  in  the  medical 
world,  and  have  made  large  contributions  to  the  well  being  of 


1 Chinese  Students'  Monthly,  Vol.  XIII,  No.  4,  p.  193  (February,  1918). 


Introduction 


5 


North,  Central,  East  and  South  China.1  Women  in  institutions 
of  learning  in  every  province  of  China  and  in  many  colleges  of 
America  will  carry  on  the  movement  which  is  bringing  a new  era 
for  the  women  of  their  nation. 

Between  the  conservative  and  progressive  groups  is  a great 
proportion  of  the  population.  Touched  by  the  new  life  and 
thought  of  the  outside  world,  they  are  still  deeply  imbued  with 
the  spirit  of  Old  China.  They  read  the  modern  newspaper,  but 
think  it  less  important  than  the  study  of  Chinese  history.  They 
allow  their  children  to  attend  modern  schools,  but  insist  on  home 
memorization  of  the  classics;  they  permit  sons  to  study  in  foreign 
lands,  but  arrange  their  betrothal  with  little  or  no  regard  for  their 
wishes.  Members  of  this  group  represent  all  stages  of  change 
between  the  old  and  the  new;  keen  to  recognize  advantages  and 
disadvantages  in  both  the  old  and  the  new,  they  try  to  combine 
the  best  in  both,  to  suit  their  own  individual  and  family  needs. 

Advancement  of  the  work,  now  done  relatively  unconsciously 
by  the  individuals  of  the  changing  group,  is  the  task  which  con- 
fronts the  modern  educator  of  China.  It  is  a task  which  must  be 
accomplished  consciously  and  with  definite  purposes.  Both  the 
old  and  the  new  civilizations  contribute  elements  which  are 
necessary  to  present  educational  effectiveness,  but  which  are  now 
to  a great  extent  selected  by  tradition.  The  discovery  and  choice 
of  content  and  methods  of  education  which  vary  with  the  needs 
of  the  conservative,  progressive  and  changing  groups  of  society 
is  an  outstanding  problem  of  education  in  China  to-day.  Within 
this  problem,  the  education  of  boys  and  the  education  of  girls 
are  differentiated  sharply  in  administration  and  to  some  extent 
in  content.  The  purpose  of  this  study  is  the  survey  of  specific 
aspects  of  the  problem  that  have  to  do  with  the  nature  of  educa- 
tion offered  to  girls  in  China,  the  relation  of  the  present  educa- 
tional program  to  the  life  of  the  nation,  together  with  the  general 
lines  of  change  and  experiment  which  will  make  this  program 
more  efficient. 

1 Dr.  Hu  King  An,  graduate  of  Philadelphia  (1894),  who  has  worked  in 
South  China;  Dr.  Yamei  Kin,  who  for  several  years  had  charge  of  a govern- 
ment hospital  in  Tientsin;  Dr.  Mary  Stone,  Michigan  (1896),  who  treated 
19,649  patients  in  her  hospital  in  Kiukiang  in  1912;  Dr.  Ida  Kahn,  Michigan 
(1896),  who  has  served  with  great  success  in  her  hospital  in  Nanchang,  and 
later  in  the  government  hospital  in  Tientsin. 


PART  I 

CHAPTER  I 


THE  TRADITIONAL  EDUCATION  OF  WOMEN 

In  the  classics  the  great  sages  incorporated  their  ideals  for  the 
education  of  women,  and  each  succeeding  generation  has  ac- 
cepted their  doctrines  in  this,  as  in  other  fields.  The  Four  Books 
for  Girls,  Nu  Chieh , Nei  Hsun,  Nu  Lun  Yu,  and  the  Nu  Fan 
Chieh  Lu,  written  by  women,  simplified  and  explained  the  doc- 
trines of  the  classics  concerning  their  sex,  and  have  been  used  as 
text-books  for  the  education  of  girls  throughout  succeeding  gen- 
erations. Thus  the  classics  and  these  four  books  set  for  the 
women  of  China  the  standards  of  education  which  were  un- 
questioned until  the  middle  of  the  last  century,  and  which  even 
to-day  dominate  the  thought  and  customs  of  women  in  the 
conservative  classes. 

The  standards  of  moral  education  were  filial  piety  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  husband,  submission  to  the  desires  of  brothers  and 
sisters-in-law,  and  humility  of  spirit.  Of  these,  the  duty  of 
filial  piety  was  paramount.  It  was  the  root  from  which  all 
Chinese  society  developed.  Both  sexes  alike  shared  the  obliga- 
tion. Confucius  made  no  distinction  between  men  and  women 
when  he  said,  “Filial  piety  and  fraternal  submission,  are  they 
not  the  root  of  all  benevolent  actions?”1  In  her  enumeration  of 
woman’s  virtues,  Jen  Hsiao  names  filial  piety  as  the  first,2  and 
claims  that  women  as  well  as  men  may  obtain  it  to  a high  degree. 
“Someone  says,  ‘Such  is  the  filial  piety  of  holy  men,  women  can- 
not attain  to  it.’  This  is  not  true.  Filial  piety  and  brotherly 
love  are  heaven  given  dispositions.  How  can  there  be  a dis- 
tinction between  male  and  female?”3  Ceremonials  which  en- 
sure reverent  service  at  rising  and  at  meals,  loving  obedience  in 
every  detail  of  conduct,  and  filial  anxiety  for  the  constant  wel- 
fare and  happiness  of  parents  are  outlined  in  detail  in  the  Li 

1 Confucius,  Analects,  Book  I,  Chap.  II.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

2 Jen  Hsiao,  Nei  Hsun,  Chap.  I.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

3 Ibid.,  Chap.  XII. 


2 


7 


8 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Ki,1  one  of  the  greatest  of  the  classics.  To  incorporate  such 
filial  conduct  into  daily  life  was  the  most  important  duty  of 
Chinese  women. 

The  relation  of  husband  and  wife  is  based  upon  a fundamental 
philosophy  of  the  Chinese  people.  “Great  righteousness  is 
shown  in  that  man  and  woman  occupy  their  correct  places;  the 
relative  positions  of  Heaven  and  Earth/’2  said  the  Book  of 
Changes.  Lady  Tsao,  speaking  from  the  standpoint  of  a woman, 
agrees  that  “The  Yin  and  the  Yang,  like  the  male  and  the  fe- 
male, are  very  different  principles.  The  virtue  of  the  Yang  is 
firmness,  the  virtue  of  the  Yin  flexibility.”3  “If  the  husband  is 
unworthy  he  cannot  govern  his  wife.  If  the  husband  cannot 
govern  his  wife,  the  dignity  of  the  household  will  be  deficient. 
If  the  wife  does  not  serve  her  husband,  the  rules  of  propriety 
will  be  destroyed.”4 

The  relation  of  superior  and  inferior,  however,  does  not  in- 
timate that  the  position  of  woman  is  to  be  despised,  nor  does  it 
follow  that  marriage  is  lightly  esteemed.5  Mencius  recognized 
marriage  as  “the  greatest  of  human  relationships.”6  Moreover, 
the  wife  was  considered  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  her  hus- 
band. Sung  Jo  Chao  has  thus  set  forth  clearly  her  urgent  duty, 
“If  she  finds  him  in  error,  she  should  earnestly  reprove  him.”7 
Wang  Chieh  Fu  stated  that  the  success  of  certain  emperors  who 
became  prosperous  was  due  to  the  fact  that  they  all  had  “virtu- 
ous and  intelligent  inside  helpers.”8  The  wife  is  not  permitted, 
however,  to  marry  again.  “Once  mated  with  her  husband,  all 
her  life  she  will  not  change  (her  feeling  of  duty  to  him)  and  hence 
when  the  husband  dies,  she  will  not  marry  again.”9  “There  is 
no  second  marriage  ceremony  for  a wife.”10  Of  course,  this  same 

1 Li  Ki,  Book  X.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

2 Book  of  Changes,  XXXVII,  Kia  Zan  Heragram  King  Wan’s  Explanation. 
Treatise  on  Than.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

3 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  III.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

4 Ibid.,  Chap.  II. 

6  See  Li  Ki,  Book  IX,  Sec.  Ill:  2. 

6 Mencius,  Book  V,  Part  I,  Chap.  II.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

7 Sung  Jo  Chao,  Nu  Lun  Yu,  Chap.  VII.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

8 Wang  Chieh  Fu,  Nu  Fan  Chieh  Lu,  Chap.  I.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Head- 
land. 

9 Li  Ki,  Book  IX,  Sec.  Ill:  7. 

10  Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  V. 


The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 


9 


standard  did  not  apply  to  the  husband.  “If  a wife  dies  the 
husband  may  marry  again,”1  says  Lady  Tsao,  interpreting  both 
the  classics  and  general  usage.2  Nor  was  possession  of  con- 
cubines to  be  considered  immoral.  The  classics  recognize  this 
system  in  many  places.3  The  duty  of  each  wife  and  concubine 
under  this  regime  was  to  have  love  for  each  other,  with  no  jealous 
feeling. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  the  superiority  of  the  husband,  the 
duty  of  obedience  on  the  part  of  the  wife,  and  dignity  of  marriage 
were  recognized  by  both  husband  and  wife,  happiness  was  set 
forth  as  the  result,  and,  indeed,  was  often  achieved.  There  are 
several  love  songs  of  rare  sweetness  and  of  high  idealism  in  the 
classic  book  of  Odes.4  A couplet  from  one  of  these  poems  pic- 
tures the  beautiful  home  life: 

Loving  union  with  wife  and  children 
Is  like  music  with  lutes.5 

The  fact  that  the  wife  was  given  the  rank  of  the  husband  in  the 
marriage  ceremony  brought  her  the  duty  of  obedience  to  the 
elder  brothers  and  their  wives,  but  gave  her  the  privilege  of 
governing  those  who  were  younger.6  Humanly  speaking,  this 
presented  grave  dangers  for  domestic  peace;  hence  Lady  Tsao 
advised:  “Now  to  win  the  hearts  of  your  younger  brothers  and 
sisters  there  is  nothing  better  than  humility  and  obedience. 
. . . If  you  understand  these  two  things,  you  can  agree 

exactly  with  them.”7 

The  motive  for  the  entire  code  of  propriety  was  to  be  virtue, 
or  humility  of  spirit.  Mencius  expressed  the  ideal  by  saying, 
“To  look  upon  compliance  as  their  correct  course  is  the  rule  of 
women.”8  Lady  Tsao  writes:  “ She  should  be  humble,  yielding, 
modest  and  respectful.  First  others,  then  herself.  When  she 

1 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  V.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

2 Cf.  Mencius,  Book  VII,  Chap.  VI. 

3 Book  of  Odes  ( She  King),  Part  I,  Book  V:5.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

Li  Ki,  Book  X,  Sec.  II:  26,  37.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

4 Cf.  Book  of  Odes  ( She  King),  Part  II,  Book  VII,  Ode  IV.  Ibid.,  Part  I, 
Book  I,  Ode  I. 

5 Ibid.,  Part  II,  Book  I,  Ode  IV. 

6 Li  Ki,  Book  X,  Sec.  1: 18. 

7 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  VII. 

8 Mencius,  Book  III,  Part  II,  Chap.  II. 


10 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


does  good,  she  ought  not  to  talk  about  it;  when  she  does  wrong, 
she  ought  not  to  excuse  herself.  Even  if  shame  or  disgrace  are 
put  upon  her,  she  should  be  patient.  She  should  be  as  careful  at 
all  times  as  if  she  were  afraid.”1  And  yet  such  conduct  was  found 
by  experience  to  bring  more  than  its  own  reward,  for,  says  Lady 
Tsao,  “I  have  never  heard  of  a woman  who  possessed  these 
. . . virtues  who  had  occasion  to  grieve  because  she  was  un- 

known, or  who  fell  into  disfavor.”2  Jen  Hsiao  emphasized  the 
fact  that  “ virtue  comes  not  from  without  . Its  source  is  within.”3 
“Even  while  alone  you  cannot  afford  to  be  careless  of  a single 
thought.  You  say,  ‘No  one  sees  me.’  Can  you  hide  it  from 
heaven?  You  say,  ‘No  one  knows  it.’  Do  you  deceive  your 
own  heart?”4 

In  spite  of  their  inferior  station  in  society,  it  was  true  in  China, 
as  in  all  ancient  civilizations,  that  while  women  were  illiterate 
they  were  not  uneducated.  The  responsibilities  of  the  home  were 
heavy  and  called  for  many  kinds  of  skill.  Vocational  standards 
were  set  high  and  the  instruction  which  she  received  fitted  the 
girl  for  such  duties  as  were  thought  properly  hers. 

In  common  with  all  people,  the  Chinese  believed  the  primary 
sphere  of  woman  to  be  in  her  home.  Here  she  was  supreme.  In 
fact,  the  Li  Ki  says,  “ The  men  should  not  speak  of  what  belongs 
to  the  inside  of  the  house,”  at  the  same  time  adding,  “nor  the 
woman  of  what  belongs  to  the  outside.”5 

Lady  Tsao  realized  the  weight  of  the  burden  of  home  work, 
and  urged  the  wife  to  “retire  late  and  rise  early.  Even  though 
it  takes  her  till  midnight  to  do  it,  she  should  do  what  she  has  to  do 
regardless  of  the  difficulty  of  the  undertaking.  She  should  work 
until  it  is  completed  and  be  able  to  do  it  neatly.”6 

Both  Mencius7 8  and  the  Li  Kis  emphasize  the  importance  of 
spinning  as  an  essential  part  of  women’s  work.  The  Nu  Lun 
Yu 9 outline  in  detail  her  duty  as  manufacturer  of  cloth  fabrics. 

1 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  I.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

2 Ibid. 

3 Jen  Hsiao,  Nei  Hsun,  Chap.  I.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

4 Ibid.,  Chap.  VII. 

5 Li  Ki,  Part  XII,  Book  X,  Sec.  I.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

8 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  I. 

7 Mencius,  Book  III,  Chap.  Ill,  Part  II.  (See  Book  IV) 

8 Li  Ki,  Book  X,  Sec.  II:  36. 

3 Sung  Jo  Chao,  Nu  Lun  Yu,  Chap.  II. 


The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 


11 


To  woman  was  also  given  the  task  of  making  and  preparing  food 
for  her  family.  The  Li  Ki  mentions  the  meats,  soups,  vege- 
tables, delicacies  and  fruits  to  be  used  in  formal  dinners  and  sac- 
rifices. It  also  gives  recipes  for  eight  delicacies  for  the  aged, 
involving  painstaking  and  skillful  preparation  of  materials  with 
the  crudest  of  equipment.1 

Although  minute  ceremonials  which  typify  and  embody  the 
duty  of  children  to  parents  are  described  in  the  classics,  little  is 
said  regarding  the  duty  of  parents  to  children.  Filial  piety  ex- 
alts the  mother  to  a place  as  queen  among  her  children.  In  the 
books  by  women,  however,  there  is  some  mention  of  the  duties  of  a 
mother.  “Woman’s  . . . instruction  ...  is  confined 

to  her  children,”2  writes  Jen  Hsiao.  “The  rule  of  her  instruction 
is  to  guide  them  with  virtue  and  with  moral  rectitude,  to  educate 
them  with  modesty  and  humility,  to  lead  them  with  diligence 
and  economy;  to  do  it  with  tenderness  and  love;  to  watch  over 
them  with  sternness  and  faithfulness,  thus  will  she  establish 
their  bodies  and  develop  their  virtue.”3  “As  stately  trees  are 
stiff  and  the  branches  are  not  contiguous,  as  the  abyss  is  clear  and 
the  fish  do  not  hide  in  it,  or  as  the  sweet  gourd  clings  to  the  droop- 
ing trees  and  as  many  grasses  grow  in  the  deep,  moist  valley,  so 
children  will  be  obedient  to  a tender  and  benevolent  mother. 
This  is  a certain  rule.  . . . There  are  those  who  substitute 

indulgence  for  tenderness,  blind  love  for  virtue.  This  will  spoil 
their  children.  That  which  does  not  swerve  from  what  is  proper, 
but  diligently  instructs  the  child  is  said  to  be  tenderness.”4 

Perhaps  the  duty  that  lifted  women  higher  than  any  other  was 
the  duty  of  assisting  her  husband  at  the  sacrifices.5 

Jen  Hsiao  says:  “The  husband  and  wife  should  together 
offer  sacrifices.  . . . The  empress  takes  the  lead  in  offering 

sacrifices  to  the  spirits.  She  is  the  foundation  of  the  empire. 
She  prepares  cleanly  for  the  autumn  and  winter  sacrifices,  assists 
the  emperor  in  the  offering.  . . . She  stands  in  the  temple 

1 Li  Ki , Book  X,  Sec.  II:  6.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

2 Mr.  T.  H.  Cheng  has  reported  the  existence  of  dame  schools  in  villages  in 
the  province  of  Chekiang.  They  taught  reading  and  writing  and  some 
arithmetic. 

3 Jen  Hsiao,  Nei  Hsun,  Chap.  XVI.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

4 Ibid.,  Chap.  XVIII. 

6 Cf.  Book  of  Odes,  Part  I,  Book  II,  Ode  II,  Part  I,  Book  II,  Ode  IV. 


12 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


early  and  late  without  thinking  of  weariness.”1  The  privilege  of 
sacrifice  at  the  ancestral  tablets  was  a foregleam  of  the  perma- 
nent honor  of  wife  and  mother.  After  death  her  spirit  was  wor- 
shipped by  her  descendants.2 

The  standards  of  cultural  education  for  Chinese  women  were 
also  well  defined.  Music  and  correct  conversation  were  enjoined, 
and  by  women  themselves,  a need  for  knowledge  of  books  was 
recognized.  The  Odes  speak  of  a “beautiful,  virtuous  lady” 
who  “can  respond  to  you  in  songs.”3  Every  boy  in  China  who 
has  studied  a year  in  school  has  learned  these  lines  from  his  San 
Tze  Ching ;4 5 

Tsae  Wan  Ke  could  play  upon  stringed  instruments 
Seay  Tao  Wan  likewise  could  sing  and  chant. 

These  two  though  girls  were  intelligent  and  well  informed 
You,  then,  my  lads,  should  surely  rouse  to  diligence!6 

In  conversation  rules  were  given  that  “females  should  not  be 
forward  and  garrulous,  but  observe  strictly  what  is  correct, 
whether  in  suggesting  advice  to  her  husband,  in  remonstrating 
with  him,  or  in  teaching  her  children;  in  maintaining  etiquette, 
humbly  imparting  her  experience  or  in  averting  misfortune.”6 
The  Nu  Chieh  sets  this  standard:  “Choose  your  words,  then 
speak.  Of  course,  you  will  speak  no  bad  words.  Let  your  words 
be  in  season,  then  you  will  not  bore  others.  This  may  be  said 
to  be  the  rule  for  women’s  conversation.”7 

The  expressed  desire  for  a broader  education  in  books  shows 
very  plainly  that  in  spite  of  their  modest  compliance  with  the 
duties  placed  upon  them  by  society  at  least  some  women  wished 

1 Jen  Hsiao,  Nei  Hsun,  Chap.  XV.  Cf.  W.  Goodsell,  The  Family , p.  80. 
This  was  a marked  contrast  to  the  place  of  woman  in  the  Greek  family  where 
sacrifice  was  performed  only  by  the  father. 

2 Cf.  Book  of  Odes  (She  King),  Part  IV,  Book  I,  Ode  IV.  Translated  by 
J.  Legge.  Ibid.,  Ode  VII. 

3 Ibid.,  Part  I,  Book  XII,  Ode  IV. 

4 San  Tze  Ching:  “An  epitome  of  all  knowledge”  which  “every  Chinese  who 
has  learned  to  read  knows  by  heart.”  P.  W.  Kuo,  The  Chinese  System  of 
Public  Education,  p.  53. 

5 San  Tze  King,  line  158.  Translated  in  the  Chinese  Repository,  Vol.  IV, 

p.  110. 

6 Lu  Chow,  Nu  Heo,  preface.  Translated  in  the  Chinese  Repository,  Vol. 
IX,  p.  544. 

7 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  Chap.  IV.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 


The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 


13 


for  a higher  and  more  wide-reaching  standard  for  their  education. 
“Examine  now  the  superior  men:  They  simply  know  the  wife 
ought  to  be  governed  and  the  dignity  of  the  household  preserved. 
They,  therefore,  seek  such  books  as  will  instruct  the  boys.  It  is 
not  that  the  girls  do  not  know  that  they  ought  to  serve  their 
husbands  and  that  the  rules  of  propriety  ought  to  be  preserved; 
but  the  boys  have  been  instructed  and  the  girls  have  not.  Is 
not  that  placing  too  low  an  estimate  on  the  relationship  of  the 
sexes?  According  to  the  ancient  rules,  when  boys  were  eight 
years  old,  they  began  to  read  books  and  at  fifteen  they  began  to 
study.  Ought  not  girls  to  do  likewise?”1  “ ‘A  man’s  virtue  is 
his  ability.’  This  saying  is  nearly  true.  ‘A  woman’s  lack  of 
ability  is  her  virtue.’  These  words  are  false.  Probably  they 
did  not  know  that  the  basis  of  ability  and  virtue  is  intimately 
related  to  the  discussion  of  good  and  evil.  Virtue  promotes 
ability  and  ability  completes  virtue.  . . . The  superior 

man  should  instruct  his  sons,  should  he  not  also  instruct  his 
daughter?”2 

The  standards  of  conduct  toward  members  of  the  family,  of 
skill  in  home-keeping  and  garment  making  or  cutting,  in  music, 
conversation,  and  literature,  were  directly  taught  in  the  home  by 
educated  parents  and  governesses,  with  especial  attention  before 
marriage.3  Lady  Tsao  modestly  gives  her  father  gratitude  for 
instruction,  “Ignorant  and  stupid  my  mind  was  never  quick  of 
perception,  though  I had  the  good  fortune  to  receive  the  special 
favor  of  my  father.”4  Jen  Hsiao,  in  the  preface  to  the  Nei 
Hsun,  also  bears  witness  to  this  custom,  “ In  my  youth,  I received 
the  instruction  of  my  parents,  having  studied  poetry  and  class- 
ical books,  while  at  the  same  time  I attended  carefully  my  duties 
as  a woman.”  Wang  Chieh  Fu,  in  the  preface  of  her  Nu  Fan 
Chieh  Lu,  “In  youth  she  was  well  versed  in  literature.”  In  ad- 
dition, “Her  governess  taught  her  the  arts  of  pleasing  speech 
and  manners,  to  be  docile  and  obedient.”5 

The  classics  portray  the  custom  of  tutelage  just  before  marriage: 

1 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh , Chap.  IV.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland. 

2 Wang  Chieh  Fu,  Nu  Fan  Chieh  Lu,  Chap.  X.  Translated  by  I.  T.  Head- 
land. 

3 Cf.  Goodsell,  The  Family,  p.  44. 

4 Lady  Tsao,  Nu  Chieh,  preface. 

5 Li  Ki,  Book  X,  Sec.  II:  36.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 


14 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


“Anciently  for  three  months  before  the  marriage  of  a young  lady 
. . . she  was  taught  the  virtue,  the  speech,  the  carriage 

and  the  work  of  a wife.  When  the  teaching  was  accomplished, 
she  offered  a sacrifice  (to  the  ancestor)  using  fish  for  the  victim 
and  soups  made  of  duck-weed  and  pond-weed.  So  was  she 
trained  to  the  obedience  of  a wife.”1  “At  the  marriage  of  a 
young  woman,  her  mother  admonishes  her,  accompanying  her  to 
the  door  on  her  leaving  and  cautioning  her.  . . . ”2 

The  foregoing  ideal  of  education  for  women  is  probably  an  im- 
portant reason  why  the  great  majority  of  Chinese  women  re- 
mained in  obscurity.  Su  Tung  Pao,  in  The  Encyclopedia  says: 
“Even  with  superior  ability  and  extraordinary  character  they 
(women)  were  not  known  in  the  world.  Women  who  have  in- 
tellectual, executive  qualities  cannot  utilize  these  gifts,  and  those 
with  ability  in  the  use  of  esthetic  words  are  not  known  to  others. 
Then  there  are  many  who  are  good,  kind-hearted  and  virtuous 
and  yet  are  unrewarded.”3  Professor  S.  L.  Kiang  says:  “The 
very  fortunate  learned  something  of  (books).  The  middle  class 
girls  learned  to  read  only  the  San  Tzu  Ching  (the  Three  Char- 
acter Classics),  the  Pai  Chia  Hsin  (Hundred  Family  Names)  and 
the  Nu  Sze  Hsu  (Four  Classics  for  Girls).4  In  the  low  classes, 
comprising  70  per  cent  or  more  of  all  the  women  in  China,  they 
were  not  even  taught  to  read  their  own  family  names.  . . . 

It  is  not  to  be  wondered  at,  then,  that  since  the  Sung  time  (420 
a.d.),  there  has  been  a proverb,  believed  implicitly  to  be  as  true 
as  the  golden  rule,  ‘A  woman  without  ability  is  normal.’  ”5 

However,  to  assume  that  women  had  no  part  in  public  life  in 
China  would  be  untrue.  Even  in  Chinese  history  where  there 
was  no  avowed  purpose  to  preserve  adequately  the  contributions 
of  womankind,  the  records  abound  with  references  to  great  women 
and  their  deeds.  There  have  been  empress  dowagers,  who,  ris- 
ing from  comparative  obscurity,  have  seized  the  power  of  the 
kingdom  and  have  ruled  people,  officials  and  palace  with  severe 

1 Li  Ki , Book  XLI:  10.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

2 Mencius,  Part  II,  Book  III,  Chap.  II.  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

3 The  Encyclopedia , Vol.  XXI,  p.  18-19.  Translated  from  the  original 
with  the  aid  of  Mr.  T.  H.  Cheng. 

4 Cf.  p.  7. 

5 Kiang,  S.  C.,  Woman  and  Education  in  China. 


The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 


15 


efficiency.1  Other  women,  consorts  of  the  emperors,  have  ab- 
sorbed the  attention  of  their  masters  and  have  caused  the  down- 
fall of  dynasties.2  Still  others  have  aided  their  husbands  in 
ruling,  and  have  wisely  advised  in  matters  of  state.3 

In  addition  to  historical  references,  many  books  have  been 
written  with  the  specific  aim  of  preserving  for  posterity  the  mem- 
ory of  wonderful  women.  The  first  books  were  written  by  Lu 
Hsiang4  (approximately  80  b.c.).  The  qualities  for  which  women 
were  celebrated  are  not  in  every  case  those  which  are  admired  by 
the  Occident,  for  they  emphasize  social  rather  than  political  abil- 
ities. The  Biographies  of  Eminent  Women  ( Lieh  Nu  Chuan) 
include  19  examples  of  women  who  were  far-sighted  and  benev- 
olent; 19  who  were  celebrated  because  of  chastity;  18  who  re- 
fused to  marry  after  widowed  whether  by  the  death  of  husband 
or  betrothed;  18  who  were  celebrated  for  far-sightedness  and 
widowhood;  18  who  should  be  considered  as  warnings  for  girls; 
16  who  were  great  mothers;  and  16  who  were  celebrated  for  their 
docility  and  constancy.5  Later  (684  a.d.)  Wang  Chieh  Fu  in- 
cluded in  her  Short  Records  of  Exemplary  Women  (Nu  Fan  Chieh 
Lu)  eighty-six  short  biographies  of  those  who  were  great.  Her 
classification  followed  closely  that  of  Lu  Hsiang,  adding  15  ex- 
amples of  virtuous  empresses,  and  14  who  were  noted  for  filial 
piety.  In  the  great  encyclopedia  Ku  Chin  T’u  Shu  Chi  Chi  eng, 
published  in  1726,  which  was  designed  by  the  Emperor  K’ang 
Hsi,  “to  provide  a comprehensive  survey  of  all  that  was  best 
in  the  literature  of  the  past,  dealing  with  every  branch  of 
knowledge,”6  376  volumes  are  devoted  to  the  works  and  lives  of 
women.  The  classification  here  is  still  broader,  and  devotes 

1 Lu  Chieh  (194  b.c.),  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  Sketch  of  Chinese  History , p.  38; 
Empress  Wu  (684  a.d.),  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  64;  J.  Bashford,  China, 
p.  588;  Empress  Tze  Hsi  (1861-1908  a.d.),  Bashford,  J.  W.,  loc.  cit.,  pp.  312  fb; 
Bland  and  Blackhouse,  China  under  the  Empress  Dowager. 

2 Moh  Hsi  (1818  b.c.),  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  Sketch  of  Chinese  History,  p.  16;  Ta 
Chi  (1154  b.c.),  ibid.,  p.  20,  Pao  Ssu(781  b.c.),  ibid.,  p.  25. 

3 Empress  Kiang  Hou  (806  b.c.),  Bashford,  J.  W.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  570;  Em- 
press, wife  of  T’ai  Tsung  (620  a.d.),  ibid , pp.  585-6;  Lady  Ma  (1370  a.d.), 
ibid.,  p.  598. 

1 Giles,  H.  A.,  History  of  Chinese  Literature,  p.  92. 

5 Compiled  from  the  Index  of  Lieh  Nu  Chuan  and  translated  by  T.  H. 
Cheng. 

6 Giles,  L.,  Alphabetical  Index  to  the  Chinese  Encyclopedia,  Introduction,  p.  6. 


16 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


five  volumes  to  those  who  became  generals  and  military  leaders, 
ten  to  those  celebrated  for  their  beauty,  and  one  to  those  who 
were  skillful  in  embroidery,  painting  and  music.1 

Not  only  were  books  written  about  women,  but  women  them- 
selves have  contributed  to  the  upbuilding  of  Chinese  literature. 
Paradoxical  though  it  may  seem,  the  Book  of  Odes  ( She  King) 
includes,  as  an  integral  part  of  the  nation’s  most  sacred  litera- 
ture, at  least  ten  poems  written  by  women.  Commentators2 
agree  that  in  Part  I,  Book  III,  Odes  II,  III,  IV,  and  V were  written 
by  Chwang  Keang  and,  in  the  same  book,  Ode  XIV  was  written 
by  a daughter  of  the  house  of  Wei  who  longed  to  revisit  her  home. 
Similarly, Odes  I and  X,  in  Book  IV,  Odes  V and  VII,  in  Book  V, 
were  written  by  Chinese  ladies  of  the  Inner  Courts.  In  addition 
to  those  in  the  classics,  Chinese  literature  abounds  in  poems 
written  by  women.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Lady  P’an, 
whose  “Autumn  Fan”3  is  known  by  all  students  of  Chinese  lit- 
erature. China’s  history  is  indebted  to  a woman,  Lady  Tsao 
(50-112  a.d.),4  for  its  record  of  the  Later  Han  Dynasty.  She 
was  also  the  author  of  Instruction  for  Women  ( Nu  Chieh). 
Later,  Sung  Jo  Chao5  (785-805  a.d.)  compiled  the  Analects  for 
Women  (Nu  Lun  Yu).  Later  (1404  a.d.)  Jen  Hsiao6  wrote  her 
Teaching  of  the  Inner  Courts  ( Nei  Hsun).  Wang  Chieh  Fu7 8 
(970-1127  a.d.)  selected  from  the  examples  of  ancient  women 
those  who  should  be  imitated  by  the  girls  of  her  generation,  in 
her  Short  Records  of  Exemplary  Women  (Nu  Fan  Chieh  Lu). 
These  four  books  comprise  “The  Four  Classics  for  Girls.”  The 
Ku  Kwo  Wen  Chi,s  a group  of  twenty-six  volumes,  is  perhaps  the 
most  pretentious  work  by  women.  It  is  a collection  of  Chinese 
literary  productions  which  were  written  by  three  hundred  and 
seventy-three  women.  Still  other  writings  are  scattered  through 
history,  letters,  memorials,  and  the  miscellaneous  books  of  the 
country.  They  have  become  an  integral  part  of  the  great  Chi- 

1 Giles,  L.,  Alphabetical  Index  to  the  Chinese  Encyclopedia,  Introduction,  p.  6. 

2 Cf.  Notes,  Book  of  Odes  ( She  King );  also  The  Little  Preface. 

3 Cf.  Giles,  H.  A.,  History  of  Chinese  Literature,  p.  101. 

4 Faber,  E.,  The  Famous  Women  of  China,  p.  46. 

5 Ibid.,  p.  13. 

8 Ibid.,  p.  12. 

7 Ibid.,  p.  13;  Williams,  S.  W.,  History  of  China,  p.  39;  Chinese  Repository, 
Vol.  IV,  p.  106. 

8 Faber,  E.,  The  Famous  Women  of  China,  p.  11. 


The  Traditional  Education  of  Women 


17 


nese  literature  and  are  not  separated  because  they  are  the  product 
of  the  work  of  women. 

The  standards  of  woman’s  conduct  set  in  the  classics  cannot  be 
accepted  as  a literal  picture  of  actual  womanhood  either  in  an- 
cient or  in  modern  times.  Miss  Sophia  H.  Chen,  of  Vassar  Col- 
lege, says:  “ There  has  always  been  a minority  who  received  edu- 
cation. In  certain  families  the  tradition  of  well  educated  women 
is  kept  up:  One  would  learn  the  art  of  painting,  another  that  of 
penmanship,  still  another  the  art  of  poetry  I”1  To-day  in  almost 
every  home  of  refinement  a private  school  is  held  for  the  sons  of 
the  family.  Here  the  daughters  are  often  permitted  to  learn  the 
classics  with  their  brothers,  memorizing  the  same  works  under  the 
same  teachers.  Furthermore,  native  ability  and  power  of  per- 
sonality have  often  triumphed  over  cramping  tradition.  Never- 
theless, that  the  teachings  of  the  classics  have  moulded  social 
attitudes  toward  women  is  undeniable.  To-day,  in  conservative 
Chinese  homes,  the  women  are  enjoined  to  be  filial  daughters, 
obedient  wives  and  submissive  sisters.  The  mother-in-law  is 
the  guardian  and  absolute  ruler,  by  whom  punishment  to  unruly 
daughters-in-law  is  meted  out.  The  husbands,  while  often 
kindly  toward,  and  sometimes  fearful  of  the  displeasure  of  their 
wives,  are  at  liberty  to  bring  home  concubines.2  Parents  still 
decide  whether  or  not  a daughter  may  be  educated,  almost  in- 
variably preferring  the  son  in  education.  They  arrange  for  her 
marriage3  with  little  regard  for  her  wishes.  In  many  homes  the 
daughter  has  not  been  outside  the  courtyard  of  her  father’s 
house,  and  rarely,  save  in  the  progressive  centers,  is  a girl  per- 
mitted alone  upon  the  streets.  The  home  is  considered  the  only 
proper  sphere  for  women,  and  the  tasks  of  the  home  their  only 
proper  work.  In  many  interior  places  the  women  and  girls 
spin  and  weave  for  the  family  all  the  clothing  from  hats  to  shoes. 
Household  management  and  care  of  children  according  to  tradi- 
tional rules,  a long  life  of  drudgery  with  a crown  of  honor  and 
power  in  old  age,  is  the  lot  of  most  women  in  China.  The  tra- 
ditional ideals  of  education,  held  by  the  conservative  classes, 
are  an  integral  part  of  the  situation  to-day.  Upon  the  founda- 
tion laid  centuries  ago  will  the  new  education  for  women  be  built. 

1 Personal  letter  to  the  writer,  February  19,  1918. 

2 There  is  a growing  movement  among  the  progressive  group,  both  men 
and  women,  to  make  this  custom  unlawful. 

3 This  applies  equally  to  sons. 


CHAPTER  II 

THE  MODERN  MOVEMENT  IN  WOMEN’S  EDUCATION 

Mission  Schools 

In  1842  the  cities  of  Canton,  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo  and 
Shanghai  were  opened  to  foreign  trade  as  treaty  ports.1  Thus  it 
was  made  possible  for  missionaries  to  establish  schools  in  the 
coast  cities  of  Central  and  Southern  China.  The  ignorance  and 
superstitution  of  the  women  deeply  impressed  these  early  pio- 
neers. Foot  binding  and  killing  of  infant  girlsj  were  prevalent. 
The  people  were  eager  for  the  education  of  sons,  but  the  daughters 
of  the  common  people  were  thought  scarcely  worthy  of  such 
attention.  However,  in  the  face  of  apathy2  and  even  of  opposition, 
schools  for  girls  were  opened,  first  by  the  Protestant  missionaries, 
followed  soon  after  by  the  Catholic  missionaries.  Miss  Aldersey, 
a member  of  the  Church  of  England,  was  the  pioneer  of  women’s 
education.  At  Ningpo  in  1844  she  opened  the  first  school  for 
Chinese  girls,  and  supported  it  from  her  own  income.3  In  18474 
the  Presbyterian  Mission  (which  had  founded  its  station  in  18455) 
started  in  this  city  another  girls’  school  with  two  pupils.  The 
movement  quickly  spread  to  the  other  cities,  and  representatives 
opened  schools:  Mrs.  Bridgeman  in  Shanghai  under  the  Amer- 
ican Board  in  1849  ;6  Mrs.  Maclay  in  Foochow  under  the  Meth- 

1 See  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  Sketch  of  Chinese  History , pp.  138-139. 

2 “A  lady  connected  with  the  Chinese  Mission”  writes  in  1855,  “in 

the  girls’  day  school  I found  fourteen  scholars.  . . . The  old  lady  (teacher) 

reminded  me  that  girls  in  the  country  were  very  stupid  and  dull;  but  that  they 
would  learn  by  and  by.  She  told  me  they  were  unwilling  to  attend  without 
receiving  some  cash,  because  they  thought  it  necessary  to  do  some  work  every 
day  to  earn  rice.  So  I told  her  . . . that  each  pupil  was  to  have  20  cash 

(or  1*  cents)  per  day.  ‘Oh,  then/  she  replied,  ‘they  will  be  eager  to  study.’  ” 
The  Spirit  of  Missions,  July,  1855,  p.  319. 

3 See  Burton,  M.,  Education  of  Women  in  China,  p.  35;  Dean,  The  China 
Mission,  p.  141;  Presbyterian  Mission  Report,  1858,  p.  87. 

4 Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1847,  p.  32. 

5 Ibid.,  1845,  p.  22. 

6 Report,  American  Board  of  Foreign  Com.,  1849,  p.  165. 

18 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women's  Education 


19 


odist  Mission  in  1851  j1  the  Episcopal  Mission  in  Shanghai  in 
1852  ;2  the  American  Board  in  Foochow  in  1853  ;3  the  Presbyterian 
Board  in  Canton  in  1853  ;4  the  American  Board  in  Canton  in 
1854  ;5  the  Presbyterian  Board  in  Shanghai  in  1857  ;6  the  Baptist 
Board  at  Ningpo  in  1858 ;7  the  Wesleyan  Church  at  Canton,8 
and  the  Reformed  Church  at  Amoy9  in  1860. 

In  1858  a treaty  with  the  American,  English,  and  French 
governments  gave  to  Protestant  and  Catholic  missionaries  official 
permission  to  propagate  their  faiths  in  any  part  of  the  country.10 
This  opened  the  whole  of  China  to  mission  work.  For  six  years 
public  opinion  thwarted  all  efforts  towards  girls’  schools  in  North 
China,11  but  finally,  in  1864,  seven  girls  in  Tientsin,  and  five 
girls  in  Peking  entered  American  Board  schools.12  In  1872, 
thirteen  girls  entered  the  Presbyterian  Mission  at  Chefoo.13  The 
pioneer  school  of  Central  China  was  founded  in  Kiukiang  by  the 
Methodist  Mission  in  1873.  Gradually  at  first  and  then  in  rapid 
succession  girls’  schools  under  the  missions  have  been  opened, 
until  to-day  they  are  found  in  many  cities.  A large  proportion 
of  these  are  founded  by  American  and  British  societies,  but  Nor- 
way, Sweden,  Germany,  and  Switzerland  are  also  represented.14 

The  course  of  study  in  these  schools  followed  the  contemporary 
studies  in  the  West.15  The  Report  of  the  Presbyterian  School  in 
Ningpo  for  1849  gives  the  following  schedule  of  studies:  “The 
girls  are  taught  to  read  their  own  language.  They  do  not  learn 

1 Report,  Methodist  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1851,  p.  134. 

2 The  Spirit  of  Missions , November,  1852,  p.  408. 

3 Report,  American  Board  of  Foreign  Com.,  1853,  p.  132. 

4 Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1854,  p.  48 

5 Report,  American  Board  of  Foreign  Com.,  1854,  p.  139. 

6 Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1857,  p.  71. 

7 Report,  American  Baptist  Mission  Union,  1860,  p.  65. 

8 Wesleyan  Report,  1860,  p.  40. 

9 Reformed  Church  Report  of  Foreign  Missions,  1860,  p.  20. 

10  See  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  Sketch  of  Chinese  History , p.  155.  Original  text  of 
treaty  in  Methodist  Missions  Report,  1859,  p.  23. 

11  Report,  American  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1864,  p.  129. 

12  Ibid.,  1865,  p.  126. 

13  Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1872,  p.  85. 

14  Cf.  China  Mission  Year  Book , 1917. 

15  The  Report  of  the  School  Committee  of  Brighton,  Mass.,  1849-50,  p.  19, 
speaks  of  the  following  subjects  examined  in  District  III : Reading,  Geography, 
Arithmetic,  oral  and  written,  Philosophy,  Dialogues  and  Singing. 


20 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


the  Chinese  classics  but  study  books  containing  Christian  in- 
struction, and  some  elementary  books  in  science.  They  are 
taught  Scriptural  history  orally  by  means  of  questions  and 
answers.  Arithmetic  and  geography  form  a part  of  their  studies, 
and  two  of  the  girls  are  learning  English.  They  are  trained  to 
habits  of  industry,  and  taught  in  such  kinds  of  work  as  will  fit 
them  for  usefulness  in  the  stations  they  may  occupy  in  future 
life.”1  The  school  in  Foochow  included  in  its  courses  of  study 
“Christian  morals  and  doctrine,  geography,  history,  astronomy, 
mathematics,  and  daily  reading  of  the  Bible;  also  needlework  and 
domestic  economy.”2  It  was  “expected  that  all  graduates  be 
able  to  make,  wash,  and  mend  their  own  clothes,  to  cook  and 
take  care  of  the  house.”3 

Bible  study  was  given  especial  emphasis  in  order  to  bring  the 
girls  more  closely  in  touch  with  Christian  doctrine  and  perchance 
to  win  them  to  a belief  in  Christianity.  A mission  school  in 
Swatow  characterizes  its  curriculum  as  “mainly  scriptural, 
though  the  girls  learn  other  things  . . . which  will  be  useful 

to  them  when  they  return  home.  . . . Two  Methodist 

American  brothers  were  present  at  the  examination  and  were 
much  pleased  with  the  recitations,  particularly  that  given  by  the 
older  girls  in  the  book  of  Romans,  and  went  so  far  as  to  say  that 
they  could  outdo  some  theological  schools  at  home.”4 

Gradually  political  history  of  other  nations  as  well  as  of  China, 
English  language,  and  the  Chinese  classics  became  a part  of  the 
curriculum.  In  1883,  the  progressive  Chinese  demanded  “new 
educational  methods,  ‘including  the  study  of  English,  the  Chinese 
classics,  music  and  other  accomplishments’  ” so  insistently  in  one 
of  the  missions  of  Southern  China  that  it  led  to  the  introduction 
of  these  subjects.5 

Some  years  later,  English  is  spoken  of  as  “somewhat  of  an 
experiment  as  taught  in  the  school,”  but  the  widened  course  of 
study  justified  itself,  for  the  girls  showed  progress.  In  addition, 
the  study  “broadened  and  strengthened  their  minds,  and  made 

1 Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1849,  p.  36. 

2 Report,  Methodist  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1864,  p.  25. 

3 Ibid.,  1864,  p.  25. 

4 Report,  Woman’s  Baptist  Society,  1882,  p.  78. 

6 Report,  Women’s  Foreign  Mission  Society,  Methodist  Church,  1883,  p.  24. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women’s  Education 


21 


them  freer  in  giving  expression  to  the  experience  of  their  hearts.”1 
Participation  in  household  duties  and  industrial  arts  remained  an 
integral  part  of  the  school  progress.  In  Tungchow  the  girls  spent 
from  one  until  three  o’clock  every  day  at  some  hand-work.  They 
knew  “how  to  do  some  kinds  of  embroidery  and  to  make  tidies. 
All  but  four  were  able  to  spin.  ...  A well-to-do  church 
member  . . . engaged  to  take  all  the  thread  made  in  ex- 

change for  cloth.”2  In  Ningpo,  “the  girls  did  all  the  cleaning, 
washing  and  cooking  ...  to  help  the  mission  in  its  time  of 
difficulty.”3 

During  the  past  twenty  years  the  curriculum  has  been  changed 
as  the  curriculum  of  the  West  has  been  changed.  Physical  cul- 
ture, general  reading,  elementary  science,  hygiene  and  domestic 
science  have  been  included.  The  present  course  of  study  of  the 
Central  China  Christian  Educational  Association  requires  for  the 
lower  primary  school  courses  in  Scripture,  Chinese  classics, 
Chinese  language,  history,  geography,  elementary  science,  object 
lessons,  with  English  optional;  for  the  higher  primary  schools, 
courses  in  Scripture,  Chinese  classics,  Chinese  language,  history, 
geography,  science  (science  readers  and  physiology),  mathe- 
matics, English;  for  the  middle  schools,  Scripture,  Chinese 
classics,  Chinese  composition,  history,  geography,  zoology, 
botany,  physics,  chemistry,  mathematics  (algebra,  geometry, 
trigonometry)  with  psychology  as  an  alternative,  and  English.4 
The  Keen  School  (Chung  Hsi)  of  Tientsin  thus  outlines  its  pro- 
gram for  advance:  “We  (desire  to)  see  every  girl  who  graduates 
from  Keen  School  in  the  future  going  out  with  something  she  can 
teach  others,  and  by  which  she  might  earn  her  own  livelihood  if 
necessary.  (This  . . . calls)  for  normal  training  and  prac- 

tice work,  including  places  for  day  school,  kindergarten,  indus- 
trial work  and  domestic  science.”5 

Mission  schools  of  all  Protestant  churches  and  all  grades  are 
united  under  the  Chinese  Christian  Educational  Association6 
with  an  advisory  council  made  up  of  members  from  eight  geo- 

1 Report,  Women's  Foreign  Mission  Society  Methodist  Church,  1886,  p.  30. 

2 Woman’s  Work  for  Woman , January,  1877,  p.  372. 

3 Report,  Presbyterian  Board  of  Foreign  Missions,  1899,  p.  43. 

4 The  Educational  Review , July,  1916. 

6 Report,  North  China  Woman's  Conference  (Methodist),  1917,  p.  9. 

6 China  Mission  Year  Book , 1907,  p.  378. 


22 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


graphical  districts.  The  central  association  discusses  questions 
of  wide  significance,  and  formulates  plans  for  educational  prog- 
ress. Affiliated  associations  in  Fukien,  Kwangtung,  Shantung 
and  Honan,  Manchuria,  Chili  and  Shansi,  Hunan,  West,  Central 
and  East  China1  adapt  and  put  into  execution  the  suggestions  of 
the  general  committee,  and  propose  further  problems  for  con- 
sideration. Each  association  has  adopted  a course  of  study  to  be 
the  standard  for  its  district,  and  honors  of  some  kind  are  given 
to  those  schools  which  reach  the  standard  set.  Uniform  exami- 
nations are  being  introduced  in  several  systems,  and  in  the  West 
China  Union  two  executive  officers  give  full  time  to  supervision 
and  administration.  Membership  in  these  associations  is  volun- 
tary. No  distinction  is  made  between  girls’  and  boys’  schools. 
The  system  of  girls’  education  as  outlined  by  the  missionary 
union  may  be  illustrated  by  Figure  1. 

Lower  primary  schools  are  scattered  through  the  villages  near 
the  larger  centers.  These  are  usually  day  schools,  although 
lower  primary,  higher  primary,  and  middle  schools  are  often 
incorporated  into  one  so-called  “ boarding  school.”  The  divid- 
ing line  in  the  primary  schools  is  not  uniform  in  the  various  asso- 
ciations. Some  divide  the  course  into  three  years  for  the  lower 
primary  schools  and  four  years  for  the  higher  primary  schools. 
The  middle  school  endeavors  to  prepare  girls  both  for  teaching 
and  for  college  through  elective  courses.  In  addition,  many 
centers  have  established  special  schools  for  the  training  of 
teachers.  There  are  four  centers  where  instruction  of  college 
grade  is  given  to  women:  North  China  Woman’s  College,  a 
union  institution  at  Pekin;  Ginling  College,  a union  institution 
at  Nanking;  Foochow  Woman’s  College  and  the  American  Board 
College  in  Foochow;  Canton  Christian  College  in  Canton,  and 
the  Church  Missionary  Society  in  Fukien.  The  total  attendance 
at  these  colleges  in  1916  was  sixty-four  girls.2  A Union  medical 
school  in  Peking  and  denominational  centers  in  other  cities  pre- 
pare women  to  become  physicians.  A large  proportion  of  the 
hospitals  train  women  nurses. 

The  influence  of  girls’  mission  schools  in  China,  both  in  pre- 
paring teachers  and  in  bringing  about  a social  demand  for 
women’s  education,  has  been  exceedingly  strong.  Teachers  in 

1 Game  well,  F.  D.,  Report  in  Educational  Review , July,  1915. 

2 See  China  Mission  Year  Book , 1917. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women's  Education 


23 


the  missions  are  recruited  as  far  as  possible  from  their  own 
graduates,  and  many  of  the  teachers  in  government  institutions 
for  girls  have  been  trained  in  the  missions.  Mr.  P.  W.  Kuo  says: 
“ Perhaps  the  earliest  source  of  obtaining  teachers  capable  in  a 


Fig.  I.^The^Mission  Educational  System. 


way  to  meet  the  new  demand  was  the  missionary  schools.  . . . 

Some  of  the  better  and  higher  institutions  managed  by  mission- 
aries turned  out  many  graduates  more  or  less  fitted  to  assume  the 
responsibility  of  teaching  in  new  schools.  It  is  but  natural  that 
they  were  sought  for  by  the  government  as  well  as  by  private 
schools.”1 * 3 

1 P.  W.  Kuo,  Training  of  Teachers  in  China , pp.  19-20.  (Master’s  thesis, 

Teachers  College,  1912. 

3 


24 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


The  mission  schools  have  also  helped  to  overcome  the  preju- 
dice toward  education  of  girls  and  are  now  doing  what  they  can 
to  meet  the  popular  demand  for  increased  opportunities.  Mrs. 
Ashmore,  after  about  fifteen  years  of  service,  gives  her  experi- 
ence: “when  I first  took  the  school  we  were  obliged  to  tease  the 
parents  for  the  privilege  of  educating  their  girls.  Now  I am  con- 
tinually asked,  ‘Is  there  any  room  in  the  schools  for  my  girls?’ 
They  know  they  must  make  application  before  school  opens  in 
order  to  get  them  in.”1  “Said  an  old  native  preacher  who  was 
listening  to  the  examination  (of  the  Foochow  Girls’  School),  ‘Ac- 
cording to  this,  our  girls  ought  to  eat  the  rice  grains,  and  our  boys, 
the  rice  water.’  ”2  “ Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  change  is  that 

with  respect  to  the  education  of  women  and  girls,”  writes  Bishop 
Huntington.  “Our  own  schools  are  utterly  inadequate  to  meet 
the  growing  demands.  The  girls’  academy  at  Hengchow  (an 
interior  city  of  Hunan)  reports  attendance  larger  than  the  build- 
ing could  comfortably  accommodate.  Were  we  ready  to  receive 
them,  three  times  our  number  would  be  glad  to  attend.”3 

The  growth  in  the  number  of  girls  in  Protestant  mission  schools 
in  China  may  be  seen  from  the  following  table: 

In  1849, 4 3 schools,  probably  fewer  than  50  pupils 
In  I860,5 6  12  schools,  approximately  196  pupils 
In  1869,®  31  schools,  556  pupils 
In  1877, 7 8 38  schools,  524  pupils 
In  1896,®  308  schools,  6,798  pupils 
In  1910, 9 (no  report  available),  16,190  pupils 
In  1915, 10  45,168  pupils 
In  1916, 11  50,173  pupils 


1 Report,  Woman’s  Baptist  Missionary  Society,  1898,  p.  151. 

2 Report,  W.  F.  M.  S.  of  the  Methodist  Church,  1899,  p.  42. 

3 Report,  Protestant  Episcopal  Church,  1913,  p.  213. 

4 Compiled  from  Presbyterian  Report,  1849;  American  Board  Foreign 
Mission  Report,  1849. 

5 Compiled  from  Baptist  Report,  1860;  Presbyterian  Report,  1860;  Amer- 
ican Board  Report,  1860;  Wesleyan  Report,  1860.  Checked  by  the  reports  of 
all  other  reports  of  missions  in  China  at  that  time. 

6 Chinese  Recorder , Vol.  II,  p.  61  (August,  1869). 

7 Compiled  from  Records  of  the  Missionary  Conference,  May,  1877,  p.  326. 

8 Compiled  from  The  China  Mission  Handbook,  1896. 

9 Compiled  from  The  World  Atlas  of  Christian  Missions,  1910. 

10  Compiled  from  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1916. 

11  Ibid.,  1917. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women’s  Education 


25 


The  first  sisters  of  the  Catholic  Church  reached  China  on  June 
21,  1848.1  They  were  the  pioneers  among  those  who  have 
established  work  in  many  cities  of  the  nation.  Although  school 
work  has  been  only  one  phase  of  their  service,  it  has  been  con- 
sidered a very  important  activity.  Rev.  J.  A.  Walsh,  president 
of  Maryknoll,  writes:  “In  my  recent  journey  I found  schools  for 
girls  in  Tientsin,  Peking,  Chentingfu,  Paotingfu,  Hankow, 
Shanghai,  Hongkong,  Canton,  and  every  other  place  I visited. 
Some  of  these  schools  were  for  somewhat  advanced  scholars,  and 
were  attended  by  daughters  of  well-to-do  Chinese.  Others  were 
for  children  of  the  poor,  and  of  such  schools  there  are  seemingly  as 
many  as  there  are  missions.”2  The  subjects  taught  in  the  lower 
schools  are  much  like  those  in  Protestant  mission  schools.  Mrs. 
Little  reports  a visit  to  one  of  them:  “The  girls  read  (Chinese) 
fairly,  and  then  sang.  . . . They  could  not  answer  questions 

in  arithmetic,  but  all  had  rosy  cheeks,  clean  faces,  and  bright  in- 
telligent eyes.”3  The  subjects  outlined  for  the  Canton  school, 
which  may  be  considered  typical,  are:  “English,  French,  music, 
drawing,  the  usual  grammar  and  high  school  branches  and  most 
important  of  all,  Catholic  doctrine,  principles  and  practice.”4 

In  1912  the  enrollment  of  girls  in  the  higher  schools  was  1453, 
in  the  lower  schools,  48, 534, 5 making  a total  of  49,987  girls  in 
Catholic  schools. 

Private  Schools 

In  1897  the  first  school  for  girls,  established  and  financed  by 
the  Chinese  people,  was  opened.  Mr.  King  Ling  Shan,  together 
with  other  leading  men  of  Shanghai,  resolved  at  their  first  meet- 
ing that  “as  gentlemen  they  could  finance  the  scheme,  but  that 
the  executive  management  should  be  entrusted  to  their  wives. 
Accordingly,  in  due  time  a committee  of  ladies  undertook  the 
further  management  of  the  enterprise.”6  The  school  opened 
with  an  enrollment  of  sixteen  on  June  first.  In  1898  a day  school 

1 Catholic  Missions,  April,  1913,  p.  57.  See  Streit,  P.  C.,  Atlas  Hierarchicus. 
p.  42. 

2 Rev.  J.  A.  Walsh,  personal  letter,  April  26,  1918. 

3 Mrs.  A.  Little,  In  the  Land  of  the  Blue  Gown,  p.  123. 

4 Catholic  Missions,  May,  1910,  p.  76. 

6 Zeitschrift  fur  Missions-Wissenschaft,  1912,  p.  212. 

* Triennial  Report  of  the  China  Educational  Association,  1899,  p.  160. 


26 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


in  another  part  of  the  city  was  added.  In  May,  1899,  there  were 
thirty-five  girls  in  the  older  school  and  twenty  girls  in  the  new  day 
school.  They  taught  English,  Chinese  books,  drawing,  painting, 
geography,  arithmetic,  and  foreign  sewing.  A reaction  which 
was  preliminary  to  the  Boxer  uprising  closed  this  school  in  1899.1 
As  soon  as  the  anti-Western  furor  had  subsided,  in  1901  a changed 
Empress  Dowager  issued  an  edict2  permitting  the  opening  of 
girls’  schools.  Slowly  at  first,  then,  as  they  succeeded  and  met 
with  no  governmental  antagonism,  more  rapidly,  schools  were 
opened.  The  following  table  shows  the  growth  of  the  movement 
in  Shanghai: 

1901 —  Wu  Pen  School  (Strive  for  Duty) 

1902 —  I Kwo  School  (Love  for  Country) 

1903 —  Chung  Mang  School  (Worship  the  Noble) 

1904 —  Ch’eng  Tung  School  (East  of  the  City) 

1905 —  Anglo  Chinese  School 

T’ien  Tsu  Hwei  (Natural  Feet  Society) 

Chi  Sin  School  (Cultivate  Elegance) 

Pei  Hao  School  (Develop  Goodness) 

1906 —  Fu  Chiang  School  (Help  to  Attain  Strength) 

Ching  Hwa  School  (Struggle  for  Reform) 

Tsai  Nyi  School  (Silk  Worm  Industry)3 

“In  Tientsin  in  1906  there  were  five  girls’  schools  under  gov- 
ernment supervision  with  an  aggregate  attendance  of  about  250 
women  and  girls.”4  In  Peking  the  Manchu  princesses  opened 
several  schools  for  girls  which  set  an  example  that  common  people 
might  follow  without  fear.5 

The  private  schools  have  since  then  flourished  in  every  part  of 
China.  After  the  Revolution  in  1911,  an  even  greater  impetus 
was  given  to  woman’s  education,  and  many  wealthy  citizens 
founded  girls’  schools  as  an  evidence  of  their  patriotism.  A 
widow  of  Hangchow,  Chekiang  Province,  opened  a school  with 
funds  subscribed  by  officials  and  progressive  citizens.  The 
school  flourished  the  first  year,  but  the  second  year  her  request  for 

1 Chinese  Recorder,  October,  1899,  p.  500. 

2 Headland,  I.  T.,  Court  Life  in  China , p.  103. 

3 See  Paddock,  Estelle,  article  in  Woman's  Work  in  the  Far  East , June,  1907, 
p.  79. 

4 See  Mrs.  M.  L.  Taft’s  article  in  Woman's  Work  in  the  Far  East,  Septem- 
ber, 1906,  p.  105. 

5 Headland,  I.  T.,  Court  Life  in  China,  Chap.  XIV. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women’s  Education 


27 


funds  did  not  meet  with  ready  response.  After  a desperate  effort 
she  wrote  to  the  officials  saying,  “ When  these  letters  reach  you, 
I will  be  a corpse,  as  I propose  to  take  my  own  life  in  order  to 
arouse  public  sentiment  to  the  importance  of  the  education  of 
girls.”  This  brought  about  the  desired  result,  for  memorial 
funds  were  quickly  raised  to  perpetuate  the  work  of  this  martyr 
to  the  cause  of  woman’s  education.1 

One  of  the  most  interesting  of  the  schools  founded  at  this  time 
was  the  Ching  Tsun  School  in  Tientsin,  managed  entirely  by 
some  of  the  graduates  of  the  Girls’  Normal  School.  “It  was 
started  by  a group  of  these  girls  just  before  they  graduated  last 
summer  (1912).  It  is  now  (1913)  directed  by  six  or  seven  of 
them  who  do  all  the  teaching  . . . and  give  their  services 

free.  Two  live  at  the  school  and  spend  their  whole  time  there, 
but  the  rest  are  teaching  elsewhere  as  well,  and  only  give  a few 
hours  per  week  to  . . . Ching  Tsun.  . . . Each  of  the 

girls  . . . gave  her  first  month’s  salary  to  support  this  school. 

It  is  now  kept  up  in  part  by  these  funds,  but  gets  a grant 
of  $60.00  (Mexican)  per  month  from  the  local  educational  au- 
thorities, which  covers  rent.  The  furniture  is  old  stock  . . . 

from  the  Normal  School.  Scholars  pay  one  dollar  (Mexican) 
per  month  . . . which  goes  toward  food  for  the  teachers 

who  live  at  the  school,  together  with  servants’  wages,  etc.  In 
December  there  were  over  50  scholars;  14  in  the  senior  class  and 
over  30  in  the  lower  class,  whose  ages  ranged  from  5 or  6 to  15  or 
16  years.  The  fact  that  the  total  number  of  scholars  has  now 
reached  98  with  23  in  the  senior  class  and  75  in  the  junior  speaks 
well  for  the  good  management  and  popularity  of  the  school.”2 

A great  impetus  has  been  given  to  industrial  training  for  girls 
through  these  institutions.  “The  Cheng  Tung  School  of  Shang- 
hai offers  an  extension  course  in  practical  arts,  including  satchel 
making,  embroidery,  lace  work,  pasteboard  work  and  drawing.”3 
“At  Nantung,  Mr.  Chang  established  a school  for  girls  . . . 

with  courses  in  silk  culture,  raising  silkworms,  unravelling  co- 
coons, spinning,  tailoring,  cooking,  weaving  rushes,  artificial 

1 See  Cyclopedia  of  Education,  “China,  Recent  Educational  Reform,”  Vol.  I, 
p.  638. 

2 Saxelby,  E.  Mary,  Woman’s  Work  in  Tientsin,  April,  1913,  pamphlet. 

3 Translated  from  Chinese  Educational  Review,  1909,  with  aid  of  T.  H. 
Cheng,  “Shih  Chuan,”  p.  45. 


28 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


flower  making.”1  In  Changsha  a special  school  for  embroidery 
was  started.2  In  Hsiang  Twan  there  are  four  special  courses: 
Sewing,  silkworm  rearing,  dyeing,  and  crocheting.3  Some  of 
these  schools  open  their  doors,  only  to  fail,  but  the  courses  they 
offer  grow  out  of  the  needs  of  the  people.  There  is  an  expressed 
desire  for  education  for  women  that  will  give  definite,  measurable 
results  in  a short  time. 

The  private  schools  include  all  grades,  and  every  degree  of 
efficiency  from  that  one  which  taught  English  from  A to  L,4  to 
the  Chu  Nan  Girls’  Normal  School,  equipped  with  garden,  in- 
firmary and  gymnasium,  offering  normal,  higher,  and  lower 
elementary  courses  and  reporting  in  1916  a total  enrollment  of 
301. 5 Many  of  these  schools  have  become  incorporated  as 
government  schools. 

Government  Schools 

In  1901  the  edict  of  the  Empress  Dowager  Tze  Hsi  permitted 
the  establishment  of  girls’  schools  in  China.  The  immediate 
response  in  the  numbers  of  private  schools  revealed  the  desire  of 
the  people  for  such  education.  However,  not  until  19076  were 
schools  for  girls  definitely  and  officially  provided  for  by  the 
government.  Then  a system  of  education  was  outlined  similar 
to  that  planned  for  boys’  schools  in  1903.  When  the  educational 
laws  for  the  Republic  were  drawn  up  in  1912,  the  Minister  of 
Education  issued  this  most  important  order:  “The  firmness  of 
the  foundation  upon  which  the  Republic  of  China  has  been 
founded  depends  on  Education.  Under  the  new  form  of  govern- 
ment the  responsibilities  of  the  officials  and  private  individuals 
who  are  engaged  in  educational  work  are  greater  and  heavier 
than  ever  before.  The  backwardness  of  our  country,  that  has 
hindered  China  from  competing  with  the  World  Powers,  is  not 


1 Translated  from  Chinese  Educational  Review,  May  25,  1912,  with  aid  of  Mr. 
T.  H.  Cheng,  “Shih  Chuan  ” 

2 Ibid.,  September  10,  1910.  “Shih  Chuan,”  p.  80. 

3 Ibid,  1916. 

4 Mrs.  Gamewell,  Gateway  to  China,  p.  121. 

5 Translated  from  the  Chinese  Educational  Review,  1916,  with  the  aid  of  Mr. 
T.  H.  Cheng. 

6 Kuo,  P.  W.,  Chinese  System  of  Public  Education,  pp.  78,  101,  104. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women's  Education 


29 


due  to  the  stupidity  or  laziness  of  its  people,  but  is  due  to  lack  of 
education.  We  must,  hereafter,  make  our  best  effort  to  develop 
and  encourage  women’s  education  as  well  as  that  for  men.  We 
must  emphasize  and  provide  for  social  as  well  as  for  school 
education.”1 

To  make  the  education  of  girls  more  possible,  the  Board  of 
Education  decreed  on  May  11,  1912,  that  “In  the  lower  elemen- 
tary grades,  boys  and  girls  may  attend  the  same  school.”2  The 
boys  and  girls  in  higher  primary  schools,  however,  are  required  to 
form  separate  classes.3 

Soon  followed  the  order  that  definitely  established  the  ideal 
of  universal  education  and  the  aim  of  the  minimum  length  for 
school  life.  The  law  makes  no  distinction  between  girls  and  boys. 
“Every  child,  after  the  second  day  of  its  sixth  year  of  age,  should 
enter  primary  school  until  fourteen  years  of  age.  Children 
below  six  years  of  age  cannot  be  forced  to  attend  school.”4  The 
present  regulation  for  universal  education  characterizes  the  ages 
from  six  to  fourteen  as  the  “learning  years”  of  each  child. 
Parents  and  guardians  are  responsible  for  the  failure  of  their 
children  to  attend  schools  during  this  period,  and  must  report 
sickness  or  poverty  to  the  authorities.  This  regulation  is  forti- 
fied by  a child  labor  law  which  prohibits  employment  of  children 
of  school  age. 

The  Chinese  educational  system  as  outlined  September  3,  1912, 
provides  as  its  foundation  the  four-year  coeducational  primary 
school,  called  Citizens’  School  since  July  31,  1915.  This  school 
prepares  for  three  alternative  schools:  higher  primary  school, 
with  a course  of  three  years;  vocational  school  “A”  of  three 
years;  and  a supplementary  school  of  two  years.  The  higher  pri- 
mary school  prepares  for  four  schools:  middle  school,  with  a 
course  of  four  years;  vocational  school  “B,”  with  a course  of 
three  years;  supplementary  school,  with  a course  of  two  years; 

1 An  order  issued  September  2,  1912,  by  the  Minister  of  the  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, translated  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Hsi,  from  Educational  Documents  ( Chiao  Yu  Pu 
Wen  Tu  Liao  Piang ),  Chap.  V,  p.  23:  art.  21-22. 

2 Ibid. 

3 Orders  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Higher 
Primary  Schools  ( Chiao  Yu  Pu  Ching  Chun  Kao  Teng  Hsiao  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling), 
art.  16.  Translated  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Hsi. 

4 An  order  issued  by  the  Board  of  Education,  September  28,  1912.  Trans- 
lated by  Mr.  J.  T.  Hsi  from  Educational  Documents  ( Chiao  Yu  Pu  Ling),  p.  16. 


30 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


and  normal  school  with  a course  of  five  years.  The  middle  school 
prepared  for  college  with  six  or  seven  years’  course  and  technical 
school  with  a four  or  five  years’  course,  and  the  higher  normal 
school  with  a five  years’  course.  The  lower  normal  school  grad- 
uates may  finish  the  higher  normal  in  three  years.  The  Chiao 
Pu  illustrated  the  system  as  in  Figure  2. 

In  1913  for  the  education  of  girls  there  were: 


2482  Primary  Schools 
446  Higher  Primary  Schools 
2 Agricultural  Schools 
53  Industrial  Schools 
11  Special  Schools 
11  Middle  Schools 


100  Lower  Normal  Schools 
1 Higher  Agricultural  School 
3 Higher  Industrial  Schools 
15  Higher  Special  Schools  , 

1  Higher  Normal  School1 


The  college  and  technical  schools  have  yet  to  be  added  in  order 
to  make  the  educational  system  complete  for  women.  Doubt- 
less these  will  eventually  be  built. 

The  courses  of  study  as  suggested  by  the  Board  of  Education 
in  1915  comprise  for  the  Citizens’  School:  the  Chinese  classics, 
Chinese  literature,  ethics,  mathematics,  manual  training,  draw- 
ing, music,  and  physical  training.  Sewing  is  added  to  the  cur- 
riculum for  girls’  schools.2  “The  courses  in  the  citizens’  schools 
on  ethics,  classics,  Chinese  literature  and  mathematics  are  re- 
quired. The  rest  of  the  courses  may  be  excused  on  account  of 
the  physical  incapacity  of  the  pupils.”3  The  general  aim  of  the 
Citizens’  School  is  “to  train  students  both  physically  and  men- 
tally with  proper  emphasis  upon  morality,  because  ethics  is  the 
foundation  for  citizenship.  The  students  should  also  obtain  a 
foundation  of  that  education  which  is  essential  to  everyday  life.”4 

The  course  of  study  prescribed  for  the  Higher  Primary  Schools 
consists  of  ethics,  classics,  language,  mathematics,  history,  geog- 
raphy, science,  agriculture,  commercial  courses,  modern  lan- 
guage, domestic  science,  manual  training,  drawing,  singing  and 


1 From  the  Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education  1913  ( Chung  Hwa 
Min  Kwoa  Ti  Er  Tze  Chiao  Yu  Tung  Chi  Tu  Piao).  Translated  by  Mr.  J. 
T.  Hsi,  p.  1. 

2 Regulations  for  the  Citizens’  Schools  {Kwoa  Min  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling), 
issued  July  31,  1915,  art.  12. 

3 Ibid.  Chap.  Ill,  art.  15. 

4 Ibid.,  art.  1. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women's  Education 


31 


physical  training.1  “The  object  of  history  is  to  enable  children 
to  comprehend  the  fundamental  principles  of  the  development  of 
China  and  to  prepare  for  citizenship.  The  contents  of  history 


Fig.  2.  The  Government  Educational  System. 


should  treat  of  the  achievements  of  Hwang  Ti,2  the  biographies 
of  all  great  men,  the  development  of  civilization  in  the  Far  East, 
the  changes  of  the  forms  of  government  and  the  relations  of  our 

1 Order  issued  by  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Higher  Primary 
School,  art.  2,  9. 

2 Hwang  Ti  (2697  b.c.)  was  one  of  the  earliest  traditional  important  rulers 
of  the  Empire.  He  invented  the  Chinese  Calendar  and  his  wife  taught  Seri- 
culture to  the  people.  See  Pott,  F.  L.  H.,  A Sketch  of  Chinese  History , p.  10. 


32 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


country  to  other  countries  during  the  last  one  hundred  years.1 
. . . The  object  of  geography  is  to  teach  students  to  know 

the  surface  of  the  earth  and  the  conditions  under  which  men  live. 
It  also  teaches  pupils  the  present  conditions  of  their  own  country 
and  may  develop  patriotism.  The  geographical  conditions  of 
their  country,  its  climate,  its  capital,  its  commercial  centers;  the 
movement  of  the  earth  and  its  effect  on  man,  on  commerce,  on 
products;  the  capitals  of  other  countries,  their  commercial  cen- 
ters and  their  products  should  be  taught.  The  political  and 
economic  condition  of  China  in  relation  to  that  of  other  coun- 
tries should  be  included.  In  teaching  geography  the  teacher 
must  use  as  a basis  of  comparison  physical  features  of  the  locality. 
This  method  will  arouse  interest  and  stimulate  local  pride.2 
. . . The  object  of  science  is  to  teach  students  to  know  the 

natural  phenomena  of  things  in  relation  to  mankind.  The 
courses  should  consist  of  botany,  zoology,  mineralogy.  These 
courses  should  give  familiarity  with  the  appearance,  names  and 
functions  of  natural  objects,  and  should  show  the  relation  of  their 
development  to  human  progress.  The  fundamental  principles 
of  chemistry  and  physics,  including  analysis,  synthesis  and  con- 
struction of  simple  apparatus,  and  the  principles  of  hygiene  are 
also  to  be  taught.  In  science  the  courses  offered  must  be  prac- 
tical. They  must  be  related  to  agriculture,  fishing  industry,  or 
domestic  science.  Elementary  experiments  shall  be  required.”3 
“ The  object  of  teaching  agriculture  is  that  students  may  know  the 
principles  of  agriculture,  that  they  may  develop  a habit  of  dili- 
gence, and  that  they  may  understand  local  conditions  and  possi- 
bilities in  agriculture,  forestry  and  fishing.  Fertility  of  the  soil, 
possibility  of  irrigation,  use  of  fertilizers  and  agricultural  instru- 
ments; the  methods  of  farming,  rearing  silkworms,  planting  mul- 
berry trees,  raising  cattle  and  other  domestic  animals.  Any 
details  of  the  above  mentioned  courses  may  be  chosen  to  suit  the 
local  needs.4  . . . The  object  of  commercial  courses  is  to 

teach  the  principles  of  commerce.  This  study  should  also  develop 


1 Order  issued  by  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Higher  Pri- 
mary Schools,  Chap.  I,  art.  3. 

2 Ibid.,  art.  4. 

3 Ibid.,  art.  5. 

4 Ibid.,  art.  6. 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women's  Education 


33 


in  students  a habit  of  diligence  and  trustworthiness.  Under 
commercial  courses,  trading,  banking,  transportation,  insurance 
and  other  courses  connected  with  commerce  should  be  chosen  so 
as  to  suit  the  local  need.  In  teaching  commercial  courses,  book- 
keeping should  be  added  to  Chinese  language,  mathematics,  geog- 
raphy and  science.1  The  object  of  teaching  modern  language  is 
to  enable  students  to  speak  and  use  a foreign  language.  . . . 

In  choosing  text-books  the  teacher  must  select  those  appropriate 
to  the  student’s  age.  In  teaching  modern  language  use  practical 
words  and  in  translation  use  pure  language,  such  as  Mandarin.2 
In  teaching  home  administration  the  object  is  to  train  stu- 
dents to  manage  a home.  Habits  of  economy  and  of  cleanliness 
should  be  developed  in  them.  Sewing  and  other  fundamental 
principles  of  domestic  science  should  be  taught.”3 

“ The  courses  of  study  for  middle  school  are  ethics,  the  Chinese 
classics,  modern  language,  history,  geography,  mathematics, 
natural  science,  physics,  chemistry,  civics,  economics,  drawing, 
manual  training,  music,  physical  education.  For  girls,  middle 
school  courses  on  gardening,  housekeeping  and  sewing  are  to  be 
added.  Of  the  modern  languages,  English  should  be  emphasized, 
and  French,  German  or  Russian,  is  to  be  studied,  according  to  the 
location  of  the  place.”4 

The  Normal  School  curriculum  includes  ethics,  classics,  educa- 
tion (psychology,  logic,  philosophy,  history  of  education,  educa- 
tional administration,  practice  teaching),  Chinese  literature, 
penmanship,  modern  language,  history,  geography,  mathematics, 
(arithmetic,  algebra,  geometry,  trigonometry,  bookkeeping, 
methods  of  teaching),  natural  science  (botany,  zoology,  psychol- 
ogy, mineralogy,  geology,  methods  of  teaching),  physics,  chemis- 
try, political  science,  drawing,  manual  training,  domestic  science 
and  gardening,  sewing,  music  and  physical  education.  Although 
they  are  given  comparatively  few  hours  in  the  course  of  study, 
the  domestic  science  courses,  especially  in  the  normal  schools,  are 
considered  of  highest  importance.  Mr.  Tang  Hwa  Lung,  Minis- 

1 Order  issued  by  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Higher  Pri- 
mary Schools,  art.  7. 

2 Ibid.,  art.  8. 

3 Ibid.,  art.  9. 

4 Orders  for  Middle  Schools  given  by  the  Board  of  Education,  December  2, 
1912  ( Chung  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling),  art.  1.  Translated  by  Mr.  J.  T.  Hsi. 


34 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


ter  of  Education  in  1914,  writes:  “We  should  study  how  to  de- 
velop intellect  and  skill  (in  our  school  girls) . Otherwise,  it  will  be 
impossible  for  China  to  have  a footing  in  the  world  of  civiliza- 
tion.”1 However,  “the  policy  of  the  Board  is  to  make  women 
good  wives  and  mothers.”  In  1916,  Mr.  Chiang  Han  Chi,  presi- 
dent of  the  Girls’  Normal  School  in  Hanchow,  wrote:  “The 
(conservative)  conception  of  girls’  education  is  responsible  for 
our  non-progress.  . . . The  girls  in  the  normal  schools 

should  have  some  domestic  education,  but  they  cannot  be  ab- 
sorbed in  it.  . . . Nevertheless  ...  we  must  have 

good  mothers  and  good  housewives.”2  In  the  domestic  science 
department  of  Normal  School  Number  I of  Kiangsu  Province,  a 
practice  home  of  three  rooms,  appropriately  equipped,  is  used  for 
experiment.  Every  month  three  pupils  above  the  third  year 
class  make  it  their  home.  With  the  permission  of  the  parents 
they  adopt  a child  from  the  elementary  school  to  live  with  them. 
They  change  the  arrangement  of  the  furniture  frequently  and 
cook  the  suppers  themselves.  In  the  cookery  department  of  the 
school  sixteen  girls  participate  daily,  alternating  the  tasks.  Two 
girls  make  the  menus  for  the  day,  and  these  are  systematically 
followed.3 

The  growth  of  the  number  of  girls  in  school  since  1904  can  be 
readily  shown  from  the  following  table: 

In  1904,  25  schools,  468  pupils 

1905,  71  schools,  1,665  pupils 

1906,  233  schools,  5,945  pupils 

1907,  391  schools,  11,936  pupils4 * 

1908,  513  schools,  18,202  pupils 

1909,  722  schools,  26,465  pupils 

1910-11,  no  reports.  Many  schools  closed  because  of  the  Revolution. 

1912,  2,389  schools,  141,130  pupils6 

1913,  3,123  schools,  166,964  pupils6 

1917,  3,533  schools,  170,789  pupils7 


1 Chinese  Educational  Review , 1914.  Translated  by  T.  H.  Cheng. 

2 The  Chinese  Weekly,  1916.  Translated  by  T.  H.  Cheng. 

3 Chinese  Educational  Review,  1916,  Vol.  VIII;  No.  VI.  Translated  by 
T.  H.  Cheng. 

4 The  year  girls’  schools  were  made  an  integral  part  of  the  system. 

6 Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Education  of  China,  1912  ( Chung  Hwa 

Min  Kwoa  Ti  Tse  Chiao  Yu  Tung  Chi  Tu  Piao ),  p.  1. 

(Notes  6 and  7 on  page  35). 


The  Modern  Movement  in  Women’s  Education 


35 


Relationship  Between  Mission,  Private  and  Government 

Schools 

Mission  schools  were  the  pioneers  in  the  field  of  modern  educa- 
tion and  are  to-day  rendering  great  service  in  all  departments  of 
school  work.  Private  schools  represented  the  first  efforts  of  the 
Chinese  people  to  provide  for  themselves  the  new  type  of  schools, 
and  are  to-day  a strong  factor  in  educational  progress.  The 
government  schools,  established  in  1907,  have  accepted  the  new 
education  from  the  West  and  have  grown  much  more  rapidly 
than  either  mission  or  private  schools.  To-day,  after  only 
eleven  years  of  existence,  they  comprise  the  largest  educational 
system  in  China. 

The  government  educational  authorities,  however,  exercise  no 
cramping  control  over  either  private  or  mission  schools.  The 
private  schools  may  sustain  three  relationships  to  the  govern- 
ment. If  they  receive  no  funds,  they  may  be  absolutely  inde- 
pendent from  all  control  and  inspection  (although  periodical 
reports  to  the  government  authorities  are  required).  If  sub- 
sidies from  the  government  are  received,  in  addition  to  reports 
they  are  inspected  periodically  by  officials  and  are  required  to 
maintain  a certain  standard  of  work.  If  there  are  no  government 
schools  near,  private  schools  may  be  delegated  by  the  govern- 
ment to  provide  education  for  children  in  the  immediate  vicinity, 
and  are  thus  incorporated  into  the  government  system. 

The  relation  of  the  mission  schools  to  the  government  system 
is  still  undetermined.  The  mission  schools  are  given  full  freedom 
to  extend  education  and  courtesies  are  continually  exchanged 
between  government  and  mission  institutions.  Officials  and 
leaders  in  national  affairs  contribute,  as  individuals,  to  mission 
school  support  and  educate  their  daughters  in  mission  schools. 
Perhaps  some  mission  centers  report  statistics  of  attendance  to 
the  provincial  educational  authorities,  but  it  is  not  universally 
done.  Recently  provincial  commissioners  have  been  instructed 
“to  report  on  all  the  schools  established  by  foreigners  in  their 


6 Statistics  of  the  Department  of  Education  of  China,  1913. 

7 From  a private  report  sent  to  the  writer  from  the  Minister  of  Education 
of  China,  March  5,  1918.  The  Minister  says  in  part,  “Though  it  (the  table) 
is  made  on  the  basis  of  recent  statistics  it  is  not  quite  accurate  because  many 
provincial  girls’  schools  have  not  yet  been  reported  to  the  Board  of  Education.’’ 


36 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


respective  provinces.”1  No  official  recognition,  however,  has 
yet  been  accorded  to  the  missionary  educational  systems,  al- 
though a basis  of  recognition  which  will  leave  freedom  for  change 
and  experiment,  worked  out  through  conference  with  the  Chris- 
tian educational  associations,  would  probably  be  welcomed. 
Such  recognition  would  make  possible  national  organization  of 
plans  for  education  which  would  eliminate  competition  and  would 
thus  utilize  all  available  forces  for  the  rapid  promotion  of  educa- 
tion. It  is  apparent  that  only  united  concentrated  effort  can 
bring  any  adequate  opportunity  for  education  to  this  generation 
of  Chinese  girlhood. 

1 The  Educational  Review , July,  1918,  p.  269. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  PRESENT  SITUATION 
The  Rapid  Rise  of  Girls’  Schools 

The  outstanding  feature  in  the  education  of  women  to-day  is 
the  rapid  rise  in  the  number  of  students.  The  growth  began  in 
1877  during  the  period  of  missionary  education,  before  the 
government  permitted  schools  for  women.  This  growth  was 
contemporaneous  with  the  first  educational  mission  to  America.1 
The  numbers  increased  gradually  until  1896.  The  Boxer  out- 
break of  1900  had  no  permanent  detrimental  effect  on  the  enroll- 
ment in  mission  schools  although  there  are  no  statistical  reports  for 
girls’  schools  until  1908.  The  agitation  for  reform  and  govern- 
mental encouragement  from  1902-1907  resulted  in  the  establish- 
ment of  Chinese  private,  municipal  and  government  institutions. 
The  enrollment  in  these,  together  with  that  in  missions  schools,  in- 
ceased  steadily  until  the  Revolution  in  1910-11  made  it  necessary 
to  suspend  work  in  Chinese  schools  in  many  places.  However, 
the  most  remarkable  increase  of  the  entire  movement  took  place 
in  1912.  The  mission  report  of  1915  and  the  partial  government 
report  of  1917  indicate  that  the  numbers  continue  to  grow.  The 
following  table  shows  the  statistical  increase  for  all  China,  1849- 
1915,  mission  schools  only:2 3 

In  1849,  less  than,  50  pupils 
1860,  196  pupils 
1869,  556  pupils 
1877,  524  pupils 
1896,  6,358  pupils 

1909,  Government  and 

1910,  Mission,  42,655  pupils8 

1916,  Mission  and 

1917,  Government,  220,705  pupils4 

1 Kuo,  P.  W.,  Chinese  System  of  Education , p.  68. 

2 It  has  been  possible  to  find  records  of  the  number  of  girls  in  school  in 
Catholic  Missions  for  the  year  1912  only.  Hence  they  are  not  included  in  this 
table. 

3 In  1909  was  printed  the  last  available  report  before  the  suspension  of 
government  schools  during  the  Revolution.  In  1910  was  printed  the  first 
report  of  Mission  Schools  for  girls  after  the  Boxer  Rebellion. 

4 These  reports  are  the  latest  ones  which  are  available. 


37 


38 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 

Elimination  in  the  Schools  as  a Whole 

The  great  majority  of  the  girls  in  school  in  China  attend  the 
lower  elementary  schools:  170,057  are  in  the  lower  primary  or 


Fig.  3.  The  Rise  of  Girls’  Schools. 


The  Present  Situation 


39 


citizens'  schools;  27,909  are  in  higher  primary  schools,1  and  14,909 
in  middle  schools. 

Lower  Elementary  Mission 2 Government 3 Total 

Lower  Elementary  or  Special  Schools 40,905  133,509  174,414 

Higher  Elementary 6,889  21,655  28,544 

Middle  or  above  Normal  School 2,122  11,638  13,760 

Over  80  per  cent  of  the  girls  who  enter  school  are  in  the  lower 
elementary  school,  13  per  cent  in  the  higher  elementary  school, 
and  6 per  cent  in  the  middle  school.  This  indicates  that  eight  out 
of  ten  girls  who  have  enrolled  in  schools  are  in  their  first  four  years 
of  study,4  and  that  6 per  cent  only  have  remained  for  seven  years 
of  study.  When  curricula  are  to  be  considered,  this  fact  is  of 
vital  significance. 

Geographical  Distribution  of  Educational  Institutions 

The  universal  tendency  of  schools  to  center  in  the  large  cities 
and  to  neglect  country  districts  is  evident  in  China.  The  coast 
provinces  are  comparatively  well  provided  with  schools  while  the 
inland  provinces  have  only  a scattering  few.  A notable  exception 
to  this  rule,  however,  is  Szechuen,  which  leads  the  entire  nation  in 
the  number  of  government  schools  and  ranks  third  in  the  number 
of  Protestant  mission  schools  for  girls.  It  was  impossible  to 
secure  information  concerning  the  location  of  government  schools 
for  girls,  but  the  map  of  the  location  of  Protestant  mission 
schools  for  girls  shows  the  general  distribution  (see  frontispiece). 

The  number  of  girls’  schools  in  each  province  is  made  clear  in 


the  following  table : 

Mission 

Government 

Province 

Schools 6 

Schools6 

Total 

Anhwei 

85 

25 

110 

Chekiang 

182 

249 

431 

1 China  Mission  Year  Book , 1917,  statistics  for  1916. 

2 This  includes  only  Protestant  missions.  Catholic  statistics  are  not 
available. 

3 Annual  Report  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

4 This  high  percentage  may  be  partially  explained  by  the  growth  in  the 
number  of  girls  in  schools,  since,  of  course,  all  girls  must  begin  in  the  lower 
elementary  grades. 

6 Committee  on  Education  of  the  Edinburgh  Commission  on  Education. 

8 Report  of  Minister  of  Education,  1913,  p.  1. 

4 


40 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Mission 

Government 

Province 

Schools 

Schools 

Total 

Chili 

141 

324 

465 

Peking 

68 

Fukien 

650 

19 

669 

Honan 

73 

83 

156 

Hunan 

88 

131 

219 

Hupeh 

236 

194 

430 

Kansu 

10 

9 

19 

Kiangsi 

46 

69 

115 

Kiangsu 

244 

263 

507 

Kwangsi 

20 

64 

84 

Kweichow 

25 

114 

139 

Kwangtung 

481 

51 

532 

Shansi 

84 

259 

343 

Shangtung 

780 

197 

977 

Shensi 

24 

68 

92 

Szechuen 

474 

340 

816 

Yunnan 

54 

252 

306 

The  coast  provinces  of  Chili,  Shangtung,  Kiangsu,  Chekiang, 
Fukien  and  Kwangtung  aggregate  3,581  schools.  The  central 
provinces,  bordering  on  the  trade  routes:  The  Yantze  River  and 
the  railroads;  Szechuen,  Hupeh,  Hunan,  Kiangsi,  Anhwei,  and 
Honan,  aggregate  1,845  schools.  The  inland  provinces  of 
Yunnan,  Kweichow,  Kwangsi,  Kansu,  Shensi  and  Shansi  report 
only  983  schools  for  girls.  Thus,  as  a rule,  trade  and  schools 
have  developed  together,  leaving  as  yet  untouched,  great  geo- 
graphical sections  of  the  country.  The  comparatively  strong 
hold  of  tradition  upon  those  who  live  in  country  districts,  the 
large  percentage  of  rural  population,  and  the  primitive  methods  of 
transportation  accentuate  the  difficulty  of  this  problem. 

Number  of  Girls  in  School  Compared  with  Total 
Number  of  Girls  of  School  Age 

In  1910,  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  ( Minchengpu ) reported  to 
the  United  States  Department  of  State  a population  of  331,188,- 
000. 1 In  Some  Problems  in  Administration,  Dr.  G.  D.  Strayer 
places  the  proportion  of  school  children  to  the  total  population  of 
the  United  States  at  17.4  per  cent.  Assuming  that  the  same 
proportion  will  be  approximately  correct  for  China,  there  are 


1 See  Bashford,  J.  W.,  loc.  cit.,  p.  19. 


The  Present  Situation 


41 


probably  in  that  republic  to-day  about  56,626,712  children  of 
school  age.  Half  of  these,  or  28,313,356,  are  probably  girls. 

In  1916,  Protestant  missions  reported  49,916  girls  in  school; 
in  1912  the  Catholic  mission  reported  49,987  girls  in  school;  in 
1918  the  government  reported  170,789  girls  in  private  and  govern- 
ment schools.  Thus,  from  the  latest  statistics  available  of  the 
three  great  branches  of  education,  there  is  a total  of  270,692  girls 
in  school.1  The  number  of  girls  who  probably  do  not  yet  attend 
school  is  28,042,412.  The  proportion  of  girls  not  in  school  is 
95  per  cent  of  the  girls  of  school  age.  This  is  graphically  shown 
as  follows: 

l 

Girla  in  school....  170,789 


Girls  not  in  school  ....  28,042,412 


Fig.  4.  School  Population  of  Girls  of  School  Age. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  number  of  girls  attending 
school  in  China  is  increasing  rapidly  and  that  the  schools  are 
clustered  in  the  great  cities  along  trade  routes.  Probably  not 
one  out  of  one  hundred  girls  of  school  age  enters  an  educational 
institution,  and  four-fifths  of  those  who  do  enter  are  registered 
in  the  first  three  years  of  the  course.  Over  twenty-eight  million 
girls  of  school  age  do  not  yet  attend  school.  Education  for  girls 
in  China  has,  in  reality,  barely  commenced. 

1 Statistics  for  boys’  schools  from  the  same  sources  at  the  same  times  are : 

Catholic  missions 82,863  ( Zeitschrift  fur  Missions-Wissenschaft, 

1912) 

Government  missions ....  3,476,242  (Government  Report,  1913) 

Protestant  missions  117,483  (Mission  Year  Book,  1917) 


Estimated  total  number  of 
boys  in  school 


3,676,588 


PART  II 

CHAPTER  I 

THE  SCOPE  OF  THE  INVESTIGATION 


In  order  to  study  the  actual  status  and  the  practical  results  of 
the  present  education  of  women  in  China,  questionnaires  were 
sent  to  eighteen  widely  distributed  centers.  Fourteen  of  these 
were  under  mission  control,  and  four  under  governmental  con- 
trol. The  questionnaires  were  prepared  for  individual  replies, 
and  hence  were  necessarily  in  the  Chinese  language.  A separate 
list  of  questions  was  formulated  for  each  of  the  following  groups: 
pupils,  teachers,  graduates,  and  non-educated  women.  The 
questionnaire  for  pupils,  translated  into  English,  is  printed  be- 
low. Upon  the  replies  to  this  alone,  the  conclusions  of  this 
research  are  based. 

Questionnaire  for  Pupils 

Name  of  school: 

Location  (province,  county,  city): 

Name  of  pupil: 

Year  and  month  of  birth: 

Age: 

Place  of  birth: 

How  many  months  have  you  studied  at  this  school? 

What  year  of  study  is  this?  Please  state  clearly  the  year  of  lower  primary, 
higher  primary  or  middle  school. 

Do  you  live  at  home  or  at  school? 

Do  you  go  home  every  week? 

Do  you  expect  to  graduate  or  not? 

How  many  years  and  months  do  you  have  yet  in  school  before  you  graduate? 
After  you  have  finished  school,  what  work  do  you  expect  to  do? 

Married  or  single? 

Husband’s  occupation: 

Father’s  occupation: 

Father’s  yearly  income : 

Number  of  brothers  and  sisters: 

Number  of  brothers  and  sisters  in  school: 

42 


The  Scope  of  the  Investigation 


43 


What  relatives  have  studied  in  China? 

What  relatives  have  studied  abroad? 

What  intimate  friends  have  studied  in  China? 

What  intimate  friends  have  studied  abroad? 

Chart  I.  Daily  schedule  of  studies. 

Chart  II.  Schools  previously  attended. 

Names. 

Locations. 

Months  in  each. 

Chart  III.  Subjects  studied  previously. 

Number  of  months’  study  in  each. 

Number  of  recitations  per  week. 

Chart  IV.  What  did  you  do  last  Saturday? 

What  did  you  do  your  last  day  at  home? 

Of  3000  pupil  questionnaires  sent  out,  1176  answers,  or  39.2 
per  cent,  have  been  returned.  The  centers  from  which  informa- 


tion was  received  are : 


Pupil 

Questionnaire 

Ques- 

tionnaires 

Returned 

To- 

tals 

Chili  Province 

Changli 

Alderman  School 

85 

(North  China) 

Peking 

Gamewell  School 

2 

Tientsin 

Anglo-Chinese  School 

9 

96 

Fukien  Province 

Foochow 

Foochow  Girls’  School 

44 

Hwa  Nan  School 

35 

Tao  Hsu  School 

32 

Yu  Ying  School 

30 

141 

Kiangsi  Province 

Kiukiang 

Rulison  School 

98 

98 

(Central  China) 

Kiangsu  Province 

Shanghai 

Bridgeman  School 
Chisiu  School  (Chinese 

82 

Private) 

21 

McTyeire  School 
West  Gate  School 

205 

(Chinese  Private) 

47 

Nanking 

Christian  School 
Gov’t  Higher  Primary 

43 

School 

9 

Gov’t  Normal  School 

15 

Methodist  School 

67 

489 

Kwangtung  Province 

Canton 

American  Board  School  31 

(South  China) 

Gov’t  Normal  School 

11 

True  Light  Seminary 

101 

Union  Normal  School 

12 

155 

Shantung  Province 

Hwai  Yuan 

Presbyterian  School 

48 

48 

(North  China) 

Szechuan  Province 
(West  China) 

Chengtu 

Hwa  Ying  School 
Union  Normal 

59 

School 

16 

Chungking 

Shu  Te  School 

36 

Suining 

Hwa  Ying  School 

18 

Tungchuanfu 

Friend  School 

20 

149 

Grand  Total 


1176 


44 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


The  answers  to  the  pupil  questionnaire  have  been  received 
from  every  part  of  China,  North,  South,  Central,  West,  and  East. 
Twenty-six  institutions  are  represented:  3 schools  in  Chili 
Province  with  96  answers;  4 in  Fukien  Province  with  141  an- 
swers; 1 in  Kiangsi  Province  with  98  answers;  8 in  Kiangsu 
Province  with  489  answers;  4 in  Kwangtung  Province  with  155 
answers;  1 in  Shantung  Province  with  48  answers;  and  5 in 
Szechuan  Province  with  149  answers.  Of  the  26  institutions  21 
are  mission,  3 are  government,  and  2 are  Chinese  private  schools. 
The  last  mentioned  have  been  included  although  it  is  realized 
that  general  conclusions  with  regard  to  this  group  cannot  be 
based  on  the  returns  from  so  small  a number.1 

All  of  the  institutions  from  which  adequate  data  were  received 
are  boarding  schools.  Day  pupils  from  the  immediate  vicinity, 
however,  usually  attend.  The  majority  of  these  institutions  are 
higher  primary  and  middle  schools,  with  a preparatory  lower 
primary  department.  Scholars  who  have  attended  or  have  grad- 
uated from  other  lower  schools  enter  the  higher  primary  and  mid- 
dle schools  and  thus  the  enrollment  is  increased.  Hence  it  be- 
comes apparent  at  the  outset  that  we  are  studying  a highly 
selected  group,  probably  much  superior  to  the  group  in  the  aver- 
age lower  primary  schools.2  The  investigation  does  reveal, 
however,  present  tendencies  in  the  elementary  and  secondary 
education  of  women  in  China. 

1 It  is  interesting  to  note,  however,  that  brief  comparisons  of  the  individ- 
ual government  and  private  institutions  with  the  general  results  found  in  this 
study  do  not  show  a wide  variation. 

2 Cf.  Part  I,  Chap.  Ill,  “Elimination  in  the  School  as  a Whole.” 


CHAPTER  II 


THE  SOCIAL  ENVIRONMENT  AND  ASPIRATIONS  OF 
THE  CHINESE  SCHOOLGIRL 

Social  Status 

The  traditional  social  divisions  of  Chinese  society  are:  (1) 
Scholars,  who  include  officials  and  the  majority  of  the  educated 
classes;  (2)  Farmers;  (3)  Artisans;  (4)  Merchants;  and  (5) 
Military  Men  and  Servants.  In  the  present  changing  order  of 
society,  these  classes,  which  have  never  been  separated  by  rigid 
lines,  have  become  even  less  defined.  Modern  business  pursuits 
and  the  professions  are  factors  in  society.  The  merchant  and 
military  groups  have  progressed  more  rapidly  than  the  artisan 
and  farmer  classes.  However,  even  to-day  occupations  fall 
naturally  into  these  five  classes,  and  with  minor  adaptations  this 
grouping  has  been  followed  in  this  study.  The  professional  men, 
and  those  who  are  engaged  in  work  requiring  higher  education, 
are  classified  as  scholars;  the  merchant  class  includes  business 
men  as  well  as  those  who  are  reported  as  merchants,  and  the  fifth 
class  mentioned  above  has  been  subdivided. 

In  view  of  these  relatively  important  class  divisions,  it  is 
desirable  to  learn  whether  or  not  the  schoolgirl  population,  which 
is  extremely  small  in  number,  comes  from  highly  selected  social 
groups.  The  report  of  the  father’s  occupation  was  asked  in  each 
of  the  1176  pupil  questionnaires  from  the  twenty-five  schools. 
With  the  exception  of  a single  institution  in  Shanghai,  every  school 
which  sent  answers  to  the  questionnaire  is  represented  in  the 
returns.  From  the  total  number  of  936  answers  received,  2 
which  reported  fathers  in  a foreign  country  but  which  did  not 
state  their  occupation,  23  which  reported  fathers  retired  from 
active  business,  and  146  which  reported  fathers  deceased  are 
eliminated.  Of  the  765  remaining,  294,  or  38.5  per  cent,  belong 
to  the  scholar  class;  59,  or  7.7  per  cent,  to  the  farmer;  11,  or  1.4 
per  cent,  to  the  artisan;  379,  or  49.5  per  cent,  to  the  merchant; 
21,  or  2.7  per  cent,  to  the  servant,  and  1,  or  1 per  cent,  to  the 
military  classes. 


45 


FATHERS*  OCCUPATIONS 


46  The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


The  Social  Environment  of  the  Chinese  Schoolgirl  47 

It  is  encouraging  to  note  that  the  range  of  occupations  included 
all  grades  of  the  social  scale.  Evidently  no  class  as  a class  has 
failed  to  be  reached  by  these  schools.  On  the  other  hand,  88  per 
cent  of  the  pupils  come  from  the  scholar  and  merchant  classes. 
Nearly  nine-tenths  of  the  girls  reporting  belong  to  these  groups, 
which  probably  comprise  a relatively  small  proportion  of  the 
entire  population  of  China.1 2  This  is  especially  significant  in 
that  it  points  to  a probable  selection  of  the  fathers  of  the  girls 
who  attend  school  from  the  standpoint  of  general  intelligence. 

It  has  been  customary  in  China  for  every  family  of  the  lower 
classes  to  set  apart  one  of  its  members,  usually  the  brightest  one, 
for  the  scholar-representative,  and  all  the  others  have  worked  to 
make  him  successful.  This  conscious  selection  through  many 
generations  may  have  produced  a distinct  superior-intelligence 
group.  Probably  the  same  selection,  although  less  consciously 
brought  about,  has  taken  place  among  the  business  class.  As  the 
old  traditional  bonds  of  duty  to  the  father’s  occupation  have  been 
broken,  the  keenly  intellectual  men  have  probably  taken  the  lead 
and  reconstructed  business  along  progressive  lines.  The  natural 
intellectual  superiority  of  the  average  schoolgirl  whose  father  has 
evidently  more  than  ordinary  ability  is  as  yet  unsupported  by 
scientific  investigation.  But  whether  or  not  intellectual  selec- 
tion has  taken  place  in  the  business  and  professional  classes, ? 
it  is  apparent  from  the  data  that  the  members  of  these  groups  are 
people  of  broad  experience  and  progressive  philosophies,  who 
recognize  the  necessity  of  education  for  women. 

The  agricultural  population  of  the  nation  is  probably  much 
larger  than  that  of  the  professional  class,  and  perhaps  larger  than 
that  of  the  business  class.3  The  daughters  of  the  agricultural 
population  are  evidently  little  influenced  by  the  schools,  while 
those  of  the  laboring  and  artisan  classes  are  almost  untouched. 
It  seems  likely  that  the  fathers  engaged  in  these  occupations 
are  often  uneducated  and  traditional  in  their  thinking.  The  need 

1 It  is  impossible  to  state  accurate  comparisons  on  account  of  the  lack  of 
census  reports. 

2 The  probability  of  such  selection  would  seem  to  follow  the  conclusions  of 
Terman.  See  Terman,  L.  M.,  The  Measurement  of  Intelligence,  p.  96. 

3 This  statement  is  unsupported  by  census  returns.  However,  it  has  been  so 
estimated  by  students  of  China.  See  King,  F.  H.,  Farmers  of  Forty  Centuries, 


48 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


and  possibility  for  the  education  of  their  daughters  has  not  been 
recognized  by  them.  Further,  social  usages  in  the  village  com- 
munity are  often  more  rigid  and  more  difficult  to  waive  than  in 
larger  centers,  and  the  daughter  herself  may  hesitate  to  depart 
from  popular  custom.  Again,  there  are  few  good  schools  in  the 
country  so  that  the  country  village  girl  must  leave  home  if  she 
would  obtain  even  the  most  meagre  education.1 

The  problem  of  the  untouched  classes  is  one  of  the  greatest  in 
Chinese  education  to-day.  If  the  womanhood  of  China  is  to  be 
educated,  the  girls  whose  fathers  are  farmers,  laborers,  and  arti- 
sans must  be  reached.  They  have  evidently  been  neglected  and 
only  conscious  effort  and  propaganda  directed  to  these  classes  by 
educators  will  make  schooling  possible  for  them. 

Economic  Status 

The  request  for  the  report  of  the  fathers’  salaries  was  answered 
by  very  few  of  the  pupils.  Two  hundred  and  twenty  out  of  the 
1176  reported  both  occupation  and  salary  of  their  fathers. 
Nevertheless,  from  these  few,  some  indications  of  the  economic 
situation  of  the  students  may  be  found.  The  range  of  salary 
income  is  very  great;  from  below  $100  Mexican2  per  year  to 
$50,000.  However,  the  median  salary  falls  just  above  $500. 
The  median  salary  of  three  educators  is  just  above  $400;  of  five 
religious  workers,  $100-$199;  of  twenty-six  officials,  $1000; 
of  thirty-five  business  men,  about  $500;  of  forty-six  merchants, 
$1000-$1499.  The  median  income  of  the  three  farmers  reported 
is  $100;  that  of  the  printer  and  the  ten  servants,  $100. 

The  religious  workers  and  the  farmers  seem  to  receive  about 
equal  salaries,  but  it  may  be  that  in  the  mission  schools  (where 
most  of  the  daughters  of  religious  workers  attend)  pastors’ 
daughters  receive  certain  perquisites.  The  meagre  data  at  hand 
seem  to  indicate  that  economic  and  social  cleavages  follow  approx- 
imately the  same  division  lines.  If  the  indications  of  the  data 
may  be  taken  as  suggestive  of  a more  widespread  condition,3 

1 Cf.  Part  II,  Chap.  III. 

2 The  Mexican  dollar  is  worth  about  50  cents  gold  in  normal  money  markets. 
This  standard  is  used  uniformly  throughout  this  study. 

3 This  seems  probable  from  the  observation  of  students  of  China.  Cf. 
Ross,  E.  A.,  The  Changing  Chinese , pp.  103-5,  p.  338;  Bashford,  J.  W.,  China , 
An  Interpretation,  pp.  49-52. 


The  Social  Environment  of  the  Chinese  Schoolgirl  49 

the  question  of  providing  adequate  free  educational  facilities  in 
communities  where  the  economic  status  permits  only  the  barest 
necessities  of  life,  with  probably  insufficient  food  and  clothing  to 
supply  the  demands  of  health,  is  one  that  confronts  the  educator 
of  Chinese  girls  to-day.  Western  standards  of  social  necessities 
must  be  abandoned,  and  a new  system  of  schoolgirl  support 
worked  out  for  China,  whereby  the  girl  of  the  poorer  classes  will 
be  enabled  to  study,  and  at  the  same  time  not  be  too  heavy  a bur- 
den to  her  family.  Probably  the  economic  standards  of  life 
will  be  raised  rapidly  in  the  next  decade.  But  at  the  present 
time,  and  during  the  period  of  change,  careful  experimentation 

DETAILED  TABULATION  OF  OCCUPATIONS  OF  FATHERS  WITH  SALARIES 

BELOW  $1000 


Under 

$99 

S100 

to 

199 

200 

to 

299 

300 

400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

Total 

Scholar  Class: 

Educators 

2 

8 

4 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

24 

Nurses 

Officials 

1 

3 

1 

1 

3 

4 

13 

Physicians 

1 

1 

2 

Religious  Workers 

13 

19 

8 

4 

3 

1 

2 

50 

The  Artisan  Class: 

Printers 

2 

2 

Tanners 

1 

1 

The  Farmer  Class: 

Farmers 

1 

1 

1 

3 

The  Merchant  Class: 

General  Business 

5 

4 

3 

1 

2 

2 

17 

Merchants 

3 

1 

1 

1 

2 

3 

1 

1 

1 

14 

The  Servant  Class: 

Servants 

5 

1 

4 

10 

Grand  Total 

30 

37 

24 

6 

9 

9 

2 

4 

7 

8 

136 

and  thoughtful  effort  will  be  needed  to  extend  to  the  girl  of 
the  lower  economic  classes  the  privilege  of  an  education  to  which 
she  has  a right.  The  problem  of  self  support  for  these  girls  who 
ought  to  be  in  school  while  conditions  are  changing,  is  one  of  the 
outstanding  problems  for  educational  administrators. 

Home  Relationships 

Usually  the  girls’  schools  above  the  lower  primary  school  are 
boarding  schools.  In  order  to  learn  the  extent  to  which  the 
girls  are  separated  from  life  in  the  home,  the  questions  “Do  you 
live  at  home  or  at  school?”  and  “Do  you  go  home  every  week?” 


50 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


were  asked,  and  1084  answers  were  received.  Of  the  girls  who 
replied,  183,  or  16.8  per  cent,  live  at  home;  21,  or  1.9  per  cent,  live 
with  relatives;  and  880,  or  81.1  per  cent,  live  in  the  dormitories. 


OCCUPATIONS  AND 


500 

1000 

1500 

2000 

2500 

3000 

3500 

4000 

4500 

.5000 

$499 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

to 

999 

1499 

1999 

2499 

2999 

3499 

3999 

4499 

4999 

5499 

Scholar  Class: 

Educators 

Engineers 

Lawyers 

17 

7 

3 

3 

2 

Literary  Men 

Nurses 

Officials 

5 

8 

3 

4 

1 

Physicians 

2 

4 

2 

Religious  Workers 
Students 

47 

3 

1 

Farmer  Class: 

Farmers 

3 

Artisan  Class: 

Carpenters 

Printers 

Skilled  Workmen 

2 

Tanners 

1 

Merchant  Class: 

General  Business  Men 

13 

4 

8 

2 

2 

5 

1 

Merchants 

8 

6 

10 

2 

2 

3 

4 

1 

Military  Class: 

Military  Men 

1 

Servant  Class: 

Servants 

10 

Totals 

106 

30 

27 

7 

7 

9 

5 

6 

1 

2 

Of  those  living  at  the  school,  163,  or  15  per  cent,  go  home  every 
week;  98,  or  9 per  cent,  go  home  every  month;  19,  or  1.7 
per  cent,  go  home  sometimes,  and  595,  or  54.9  per  cent,  do 
not  go  home.1  We  may  thus  infer  that  more  than  half 
of  the  schoolgirls  are  away  from  their  homes  for  the  entire 
school  year,  except  perhaps  for  brief  between-semester  visits. 
It  will  be  seen  from  the  following  tables  that  the  majority  of  the 
girls  live  at  home  for  the  first  and  second  years  in  the  lower  primary 
school.  But  from  the  third  year  lower  primary  until  they  leave 
school  the  greater  number  live  in  school  dormitories. 

The  separation  of  more  than  one  half  of  the  schoolgirls  of 
China  from  their  homes  during  the  period  of  education  is  of  grave 
import.  At  best  the  girls  will  acquire  habits  of  thought  and 


1 Five  left  the  answers  to  visits  home  blank. 


The  Social  Environment  of  the  Chinese  Schoolgirl  51 

action  different  from  those  people  in  the  home  who  have  little 
or  no  education,1  and  unless  the  contacts  are  sufficiently  close 
to  keep  a common  sympathy,  there  must  be  a strong  tendency  for 

SALARIES  OF  FATHERS 


5500 

to 

5999 

6000 

to 

6499 

6500 

to 

6900 

7000 

to 

7499 

7500 

to 

7999 

8000 

to 

8499 

8500 

to 

8999 

9000 

to 

9499 

9500 

to 

9999 

10000 

19000 

20000 

30000 

50000 

Total 

5 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

2 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

33 

1 

1 

26 

10 

51 

3 

2 

1 

35 

46 

1 

10 

5 

2 

3 

6 

1 

1 

1 

1 

220 

the  girls  to  become  isolated  from  their  homes  and  communities. 
The  traditional  idea  of  education  separated  from  life,  and  the 
externally  imposed  Western  education  serve  to  accentuate  the 
tendency.  It  is  very  possible  that  one  reason  why  the  daughters 
of  the  lower  social  and  economic  classes  are  not  sent  to  school 
is  because  the  families  fear  estrangement.  Thus,  if  education  is 
to  be  a growth  for  the  girls  in  school,  and  at  the  same  time  to  be  an 
integral  service  to  society,  educators  will  need  to  guard  against 
desocializaion  of  the  girls  while  in  school,  and  to  direct  their 
attention  to  the  strengthening  of  the  bonds  between  the  school 
and  home  community  life.2 

1 The  large  proportion  of  women  in  the  homes  to-day,  even  among  pro- 
fessional and  business  classes,  are  uneducated.  Education  thus  tends  to 
separate  girls  from  their  mothers. 

2 See  discussion  under  Curriculum. 


RESIDENCE  AND  GRADE 


52 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Total 

184 

20 

880 

1084 

Tota 

163 

00 

Os 

CS 

595 

875 

d 

00 

iO 

«2 

d 

»o 

N 

00 

CO 

00 

CO 

00 

■«f 

00 

N 

00 

CO 

.oo 

•H 

iO 

u 

00 

OS 

IN 

00 

CO 

r>- 

1-4 

CO 

00 

eo 

o 

PU 

CO 

CO 

d 

N 

CO 

55 

55 

Tf 

no 

CO 

■*f 

N 

00 

lO 

FH 

00 

CO 

vH 

. eo 

CO 

^4 

CO 

00 

■<f 

00 

00 

•n 

If 

i-H 

N 

• N 

N 

,-H 

,-H 

00 

<N 

B 

N 

(N 

B 

,-H 

,-H 

1C 

O 

•*f 

H 

Tf 

W5 

»o 

Q 

<5 

lO 

io 

.00 

Oh 

O 

• CO 

CO 

eo 

a 

a 

uN 

N 

iH 

00 

Q 

UN 

r- 

■*< 

,-H 

Ph 

IN 

£ 

Ch 

«< 

00 

-< 

** 

00 

H 

»0 

W5 

'f 

N 

H 

»o 

ic 

WO 

00 

'-I 

00 

U5 

Jgw 

_l 

CO 

> 

Jjn 

CO 

iO 

CO 

lO 

CO 

T3 

00 

CO 

■v 

N 

00 

.*S« 

«o 

IN 

CO 

00 

H 

rs  n 

lO 

oo 

N 

o 

1C 

CO 

OS 

S 

S 

** 

co 

00 

CO 

(N 

■o 

00 

q 

OS 

eo 

N 

»o 

CO 

B 

N 

00 

CO 

CO 

CS 

o 

CO 

N 

o 

CO 

OS 

00 

•*f 

N 

00 

Ph^ 

N 

CO 

N 

CO 

o 

N 

CO 

os 

o 

N 

CO 

os 

b^ 

CO 

00 

IN 

B^ 

00 

o 

N 

00 

00 

00 

eo 

■*f 

r» 

■*f 

CS 

-*f 

00 

CO 

00 

00 

N 

N 

os 

N 

N 

OS 

»-l 

IN 

OS 

IN 

00 

r» 

<N 

CO 

1—3  N 

CO 

r-l 

00 

■<f 

00 

iO 

,-H 

N 

00 

00 

00 

s 

o 

b 

c3 

I 

M 

c 

GO 

GO 

6 

JS 

O 

B 

CD 

— 

e 

V 

5 

> 

*■3 

jg 

*3 

CJ 

^3 

.2 

*c 

o 

s 

o 

Q 

Totals 

sits  at  Horn 
Once  a wee! 

0 

O 

£ 

cS 

o 

B 

= 

o 

Sometimes 

'3 

> 

*S 

O 

55 

o 

Totals 

s 

1 

a 

> 

Q 

L.  P.  Lower  Primary.  H.  P.  Higher  Primary.  Prep. — Preparatory.  H.  S. — High  School.  Prep.  Nor. — Preparatory  Normal.  Sp. — Special. 


AMBITIONS 


The  Social  Environment  of  the  Chinese  Schoolgirl 


53 


Total 

5 
40 

227 

1 

4 

1 

4 

66 

8 

6 
1 
3 
2 

16 

303 

296 

8 

992 

Sp. 

1 

1 

22 

5 

1 

26 

78 

1 

135 

Normal 
12  3 4 

1 

4 

1 

2 

2 7 20  4 
2 6 2 

6 11  26  8 

N.  P. 

H.  S. 

12  3 4 

2 4 

3 4 14  1 

1 

1 

13  3 

1 

1 

3 9 6 1 
5 5 8 11 
2 

13  25  38  14 

Prep. 

12  3 4 

1 

1 

9 

1 

2 

1 

13 

8 16  5 

10  23  10  5 

Middle 
12  3 4 

1 

6 1 1 
10  14  4 14 

1111 

1 

1 1 

6 6 14 

1 3 1 

2 3 1 
24  34  17  19 
24  15  6 11 
2 1 

69  82  36  52 

H.  P. 

12  3 4 

1 1 

4 10  7 2 

28  31  42  11 

7 6 7 4 

1 1 

2 2 1 

2 2 2 1 
40  21  15  7 

23  11  26  15 

107  83  101  42 

L.  P. 

1 2 3 

1 

9 8 7 
1 3 

1 1 

13  12  10 
7 16  5 
2 

31  43  22 

Business 
Evangelism 
Fine  Arts 
Further  Study 

Handwork 

Rendering  Help  to  Brothers 

Home-keeping 

Kindergartening 

Medicine 

Music 

Nursing 

Physical  Education 
Social  Work 
Travel 

Travel  in  Foreign  County 

Teaching 

Not  specified 

Study  in  Foreign  Country 
Total 

54 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 
Ambitions 

In  order  to  learn  what  place  the  girl  herself  desired  to  fill  in 
society,  the  question  “After  you  have  finished  school,  what  work 
do  you  expect  to  do?”  was  asked.  That  this  group  of  school- 
girls is  selected  by  ambition  for  intellectual  pursuits  seems  very 
evident  from  the  992  direct  replies  received  to  this  question. 
In  fact,  their  ambition  for  study  doubtless  has  been  a large  factor 
in  their  entrance  to  and  continuation  in  school.  Six  hundred 
and  sixty-one  out  of  the  total  number  expect  to  become  students  in 
higher  institutions;  teachers,  evangelists,  physicians,  musicians, 
social  workers,  business  women,  and  nurses.  The  four  ranking 
highest  in  popularity  are  distributed  as  follows:  303  desire  to 
teach,  227  hope  for  further  study,  66  plan  to  study  medicine,  40 
plan  to  become  evangelists,  and  296  are  uncertain.  Only  one 
states  that  she  desires  home  life.  About  one  half  show  no 
definite  recognition  of  social  relationship  in  their  ambition  (i.e., 
“students”  and  “uncertain”),  the  other  half  state  purposes  of 
distinct  service  to  society,  i.e.,  those  who  intend  to  enter  the  work 
of  teaching,  medicine,  evangelism,  and  social  work. 

The  limited  number  of  occupations  chosen  by  the  girls  is  prob- 
ably due  to  the  fact  that  very  few  occupations  are  as  yet  open  to 
women.  The  stated  purpose,  however,  of  so  large  a number  who 
plan  to  become  teachers  is  relatively  significant.  With  the  rapid 
increase  in  the  number  of  schools,  which  will  doubtless  take  place 
within  the  next  decade,  there  will  be  a great  need  for  trained 
teachers.  Probably  many  of  the  girls  who  hope  to  continue 
study,  expect  to  teach  when  graduated.  The  choice  of  five  of  the 
girls  for  business,  and  of  three  of  the  girls  for  social  work,  shows 
that  these  fields  will  probably  be  developed  for  women  in  the  near 
future.  Although  only  one  girl  definitely  stated  her  desire  for 
home  life,  doubtless  the  majority  of  the  girls  will  eventually  enter 
homes  of  their  own. 

It  is  apparent  that  although  these  schoolgirls  have  expressed 
their  ambitions  to  enter  these  vocations,  this  fact  cannot  be  taken 
as  proof  that  they  will  do  so.  Nevertheless,  the  report  does  show 
the  general  lines  along  which  they  will  desire  training.  The 
schools  will  need  to  recognize  these  factors  in  shaping  their 
curricula  to  meet  social  needs.  To  select  each  study  so  that  it 
may  contribute  both  to  the  needs  of  society  and  to  the  desires  of 
the  individual,  is  an  immediate  need  of  education  in  China  today. 


CHAPTER  III 

THE  CLASSIFICATION  OF  PUPILS 
Age-Distribution 

The  comparison  of  age  with  grade  has  been  a very  difficult 
undertaking.  Although  the  question  was  specific  in  Chinese, 
literally,  “What  year  of  study  is  this?  (state  clearly  the  year  of 
the  lower  primary,  higher  primary,  or  middle  school)  ” the  an- 
swers varied  greatly.  Unfortunately,  many  of  the  mission  schools 
do  not  follow  the  general  nomenclature  of  the  government,  and 
thus  “high  school”1  might  mean  higher  primary  or  (following  the 
American  nomenclature,  literally  translated)  middle  school.  It 
may  be  that  in  some  cases  “middle  school”  is  used  as  a term  for 
higher  primary  school,  although  this  does  not  seem  likely.  In 
one  institution,  “preparatory  school,  ” probably  a term  for  middle 
school  is  reported.  It  may  be,  also,  that  some  of  the  girls  do  not 
know  in  which  grade  to  consider  themselves.  In  every  case, 
however,  the  translation  has  been  as  exact  as  possible,  and  every 
girl  whose  grade  was  doubtful  is  classed  “special.” 

The  questions  regarding  age  and  grade  were  answered  in  a more 
or  less  accurate  way  by  all  of  the  1176  pupils;  of  these,  however, 
6 failed  to  give  their  ages,  and  216  were  unable  to  give  their  grades 
clearly.  Of  the  1176,  239  are  in  the  lower  primary  school,  234  in 
the  higher  primary  school,  267  in  the  middle  school,2 * * 5  54  in  the 
preparatory  school,  103  in  the  high  school,  and  63  in  the  normal 
school.  The  table  on  page  56  shows  the  age-grade  distribution 
in  the  twenty-six  schools  of  the  study. 

The  legal  school  entrance  age  of  a Chinese  child  is  6;  thus  the 
youngest  of  the  1170  girls  reporting  ages  in  the  questionnaires  is  6 
years  old.  The  oldest  is  34.  Only  six  of  the  115  girls  in  the  first 
grade  lower  primary  are  6 years  old;  only  three  are  7 years  old. 

1 In  the  third  year  of  high  school  the  age  range  was  from  10  to  20  years 
in  but  44  cases.  The  only  possible  explanation  seems  to  be  a misunder- 
standing as  to  the  meaning  of  the  question. 

2 The  reason  for  the  large  number  of  pupils  in  the  higher  grades  is  that 

boarding-schools  tend  to  become  institutions  to  which  graduates  of  smaller 

schools  come  for  more  advanced  study. 

5 


55 


56 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Total 

t^t^--i-«ticocoNM(r^ooaO'^eor-ico<ot^-<j<coeDt^os^co 

COTfiCO(NOOO^t^OSCO‘OT-<lN--l  h IN  t*  t-i  hNhh 

— 1 IN 

1176 

5 

»H  rH  rH  «-<N 

CO 

CO 

OS 

IN 

~ 1 

00 

(N 

~ 1 

(N 

1 

CO 

IN 

| 

r 

25 

i*° 

IN 

eo 

<N 

” HHH  ^ HrHHN 

- 

<N 

2 

1 

10 

1 

4 

os 

IN 

_(  f^t-iCi  ri  NhM 

27 

20 

1-H  (CNhOOON  —i  iN  >— i •— i COt^CJt-1 

65 

OS 

cscor^-^-^iN— ■co-r  — i ^ — i oo 

t-i  N ii  N 

120 

00 

I-H  NONONINtCID  HH05^NHTin(iO 

hhhhN  CO 

150 

f'- 

NcoiNOOTt<'^ir^co>ooo  >— i^^i— it— iioiot"Neo*o.— irj< 

162 

CO 

rtrtN«t-(OU5NWNHNP5INeOCO!0««i-iiO«  -< 
N •— > IN  -<  —I  CO 

CO 

lO 

^NOOOO'J'OS'tNMCOOSNeiNCOOSw  CO 

N t— i N IN 

142 

-h  IN  lO  IN  CO  IO  LO  t*  N^IM  NON  tl< 

86 

eo 

NOOOsOcOCOi-i— (f-i  CO  t— i N -tjt 

CO  -1 

OS 

oo 

N 

CO  CO  lO  OS  CO  t-l  CO  rl  t-H  *H 

2 

COCOCOiOIN— i CO 

CO 

O 

wiOCOti  rl  N 

12 

os 

CO  CO  t-i  t-i 

12 

00 

*0  IN  | b- 

r» 

eon  in  j co 

CO 

CO  | CO 

Age 

1 Lower  Primary 

2 Lower  Primary 

3 Lower  Primary 

4 Lower  Primary 

1 Higher  Primary 

2 Higher  Primary 

3 Higher  Primary 

1 Middle 

2 Middle 

3 Middle 

4 Middle 

1 Preparatory 

2 Preparatory 

3 Preparatory 

4 Preparatory 

1 High  School 

2 High  School 

3 High  School 

4 High  School 
Prep.  Normal 

1 Normal  School 

2 Normal  School 

3 Normal  School 
Special  (grade  uncertain) 

Total 

* Not  reporting. 


The  Classification  of  Pupils 


57 


The  median  age  of  the  girls  in  the  first  year  of  school  is  9.83  years 
=*=  .434  P.E.  (4.5  P.E.- 1.953). 

The  median  entrance  age  of  the  girls  in  the  second  year  of  school 
is  11.92  years  =*=  .323  (4.5  P.E.  — 1.453).  In  the  third  year 
lower  primary,  the  median  age  is  13.44  years  =±=  .376  P.E.  (4.5 
P.E.  — 1.692).  Thus  the  median  age  of  the  girls  in  their  first 
year  of  school  is  9.83  yfcars,  or  almost  four  years  above  the  legal 
entrance  age.  After  one  year  of  school  work,  the  median  age 
is  11.92  years,  almost  six  years  above  the  legal  entrance  age, 
and  fully  two  years  above  the  median  age  of  the  first  year.  The 
median  age  of  the  third  year  of  school  is  13.44  years,  nearly  seven 
and  one-half  years  above  the  legal  entrance  age,  and  fully  one  and 
one-half  years  above  the  median  age  of  the  second  year.  The 
median  age  of  the  fourth  lower  primary  is  15.3  years  =*=  .18  P.E. 
(4.5  P.E.  — .824),  over  nine  years  above  the  legal  entrance  age, 
and  over  one  and  one-half  years  above  the  median  age  of  the  third 
year. 

In  the  higher  primary  school,  the  median  age  of  the  girls  in  the 
first  grade  is  15.92  years  =*=  .594  P.E.  (4.5  P.E.  — 2.671);  of  those 
in  the  second,  16.31  years  =±=  .169  (4.5  P.E.  — 1.37);  and  of  those 
in  the  third,  18.  64  years  =±=  .304  (4.5  P.E.  — 1.37). 

The  median  ages  of  the  middle  school  are:  17.49  years  =*=  .17 
P.E.  (4.5  P.E.  - .81);  18.73  years  ± .3  P.E.  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.35); 
18.88  years  ± .344  P.E.  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.55);  and  20.54  years  =*  .224 
(4.5  P.E.  — .1).  Those  of  the  preparatory  school  are:  15.42  =*= 
.398  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.79),  15.78  =*=  .458  (4.5  P.E.-  2.06),  17  =*  .475 
(4.5  P.E.  - 2.14),  and  16.5  =*=  .378  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.71)  for  each  suc- 
cessive year. 

The  median  ages  of  the  high  school  are:  16.17  =*=  .513  P.E. 
(4.5  P.E.  - 2.31),  17.2  ± .415  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.86),  17.1  ± .27 
(4.5  P.E.  - 1.21),  17.79  =*=  .328  (4.5  P.E.  - 1.48).  The  median 
age  of  the  preparatory  normal  group  is  18.25  =*=  .42  (4.5  P.E.  — 
1.89);  of  the  first  year  normal,  19  =*=  .985  (4.5  P.E.  — 4.43); 
of  the  second  year  normal,  20.4  =*=  .41  P.E.  (4.5  P.E.  — 1.83);  of 
the  third  year  normal,  19  =*=  .53  (4.5  P.E.  — 2.43);  of  the  special 
group,  17.19  ± .169  (4.5  P.E.  - .76). 

The  median  age  of  the  total  group  is  16.39  years  ± .08  (4.5  P.E. 
-.36). 

The  25  percentile  is  at  14.9  years  and  the  75  percentile  at  18.8 
years.  That  is,  50  per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  between  14.9  years 


58 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


and  18.8  years  old.  The  table  shows  that  dropping  out  of  schools 
does  not  appear  to  be  a serious  factor  until  the  age  of  eighteen. 
Thus  it  seems  probable  that  the  actual  school  period  of  the 
Chinese  boarding-school  girl  is  from  about  ten  until  nineteen 
years  of  age. 

The  data  show  conclusively  that  the  entrance  age  of  the 
majority  of  Chinese  girls  is  from  three  to  seven  years  higher  than 
the  legal  entrance  age.  This  is  probably  due  to  the  traditional 
hesitancy  in  allowing  girls  to  study.  It  is  also  probably  due  to 
the  fact  that  girls  who  are  away  from  the  centers  have  no  schools 
near  and  so  must  attend  boarding  schools,  and  parents  dislike  to 
send  the  girls  away  from  home  too  young.  Although  the  Chinese 
girl  learns  much  from  life  in  the  home,  and  obtains  a close  sym- 
pathy with  the  traditions  of  family  life,  yet  four,  and  often  more, 
of  the  most  valuable  educational  years  are  allowed  to  pass,  and 
the  tools  of  education,  reading  and  writing,  are  not  mastered  until 
comparatively  late. 

The  fact  that  the  median  age  is  more  than  one  year  later  in 
each  successive  grade  in  the  lower  primary  school  may  be  ex- 
plained in  three  ways.  It  is  possible  that  because  of  the  rapid 
increase  of  the  popularity  of  girls’  schools  during  the  last  few  years, 
the  median  school  entrance  age  of  each  year  has  been  earlier. 
Again,  older  girls,  entering  the  second,  third,  and  fourth  grades 
from  outside  institutions  may  materially  add  to  the  median  age  of 
these  years.  Or,  it  may  be  that  progress  is  slow,  and  that  for 
many  pupils  time  is  lost  through  non-promotion.  A study  of  one 
group  from  year  to  year  would  reveal  the  rate  of  progress.  Ac- 
curate school  promotion  records  will  give  the  data  required. 
Such  a study  is  necessary  before  the  actual  waste  of  time  in  school 
may  be  ascertained. 

The  data  also  show  that  these  girls  do  not  leave  school  at 
fourteen  years  of  age,  but  remain  for  eight  or  nine  consecutive 
years.  There  are  several  reasons  why  these  girls  are  permitted 
to  continue  their  study  uninterrupted.  In  the  first  place,  the 
schoolgirls  of  the  higher  primary  and  middle  schools  are  a selected 
group,  from  the  homes  of  the  educated  classes.  Their  families 
expect  them  to  remain  in  school.  Again,  the  number  of  girls 
in  China  who  are  in  school,  when  compared  with  the  total  popula- 
tion of  girls  of  school  age,  is  very  small,  and  those  in  school  ap- 
preciate the  privilege  of  learning  to  read.  They  therefore  apply 


The  Classification  of  Pupils 


59 


themselves  earnestly  to  study.  In  addition  to  this,  the  industrial 
and  commercial  worlds  are  not  yet  open  to  women,  and  do  not 
offer  an  immediate  opportunity  for  self-support.  The  limited 
number  of  callings  open  to  women  necessitates  preparation  in 
school.  At  the  same  time,  government  and  mission  scholarships 
make  it  possible  for  the  schoolgirl  to  remain  at  school  with  a 
minimum  cost  to  her  parents.  Moreover,  the  educated  girl  does 
not  marry  before  she  is  17  or  18  years  of  age.  As  a result,  she 


1st  Year 
8 29 


y//////i 


2nd  Year 
1 46 

mmammmmm 

3rd  Year 
X 30 

!■■■■■ 

4th  Year 
X 

maaaaBtmm 


LOWER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 


3 £3 


HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 

1st  Year 

2 84 

2nd  Year 

5 X01 

3rd  Year 
2 40 


MIDDLE  SCHOOL 

Xet  Year 

X 6 67 

2rjd  Year 

X 4 92 

rt  /'/  IWUMMUB— BBBMBI— 

3rd  Year 
4 4 30 

4th  Year 

2 X 56 

nonnDHHHH 


nn  Under  Age 
EZZZ3  Normal  Age 
m Over  Age 


Fig.  5.  Age-Grade  Distribution  (Based  on  Legal  Entrance  Age). 


60 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


may  have  the  years  from  the  time  she  is  old  enough  to  leave  home, 
until  her  marriage,  free  to  engage  in  study. 


1st  year 
14  7 

r : mm 


16 


LOWER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 


2nd  Year 

7 LB  22 

nzzmmnnnnzLam^m 

3rd  year 
4 8 19 


I V//////i 


4th  year 
6 39 


79 


i vmuiumi  muuiuuuunm 


HIGHER  PRIMARY  SCHOOL 


1st  year 
8 18 

nmuwnmm 

2nd  year 

11  33 

i ■ -vmmnminnmnwnmm 

3rd  year 
8 9 


60 


62 


25 


1st  year 
16 


28 


MIDDLE  SCHOOL 
30 


2nd  year 

18  37 

i ■ — vmmiMnnmmnnmiTnirn. 


42 


3rd  year 

16  10  12 


9 26 

i wmmimimimuiih 


23 


d]  Under  Age 
vrm  normal  Age 
■■  Over  Age 

Fig.  6.  Age-Grade  Distribution  (Based  on  Medium  Entrance  age). 

Amount  of  Under-Age,1  Normal- Age2  and  Over- Age3 

From  the  late  school  entrance  age,  and  the  slow  rate  of  prog- 
ress, it  follows  that  the  amount  of  over-age  present  is  extremely 

1 “Under-age”  is  a term  applied  to  the  age  of  pupils  in  any  grade  of  the 

school  system  who  are  younger  than  they  would  be  had  they  entered  at  legal 
age  and  progressed  one  grade  each  year. 

(Notes  2 and  3 on  page  61.) 


The  Classification  of  Pupils 


61 


great.  In  the  first  grade  lower  primary,  in  spite  of  late  entrance, 
the  proportion  of  over-age  is  less  than  in  any  other  grade ; taking 
the  legal  entrance  age  as  a basis,  24.3  per  cent  of  the  pupils  are  of 
normal  age  and  75.6  per  cent  are  over-age.  In  the  second  grade, 

2.1  per  cent  are  normal  and  97.8  per  cent  are  over-age.  In  the 
third  grade,  3.2  per  cent  are  of  normal  age  and  96.7  per  cent  are 
over-age.  In  the  fourth  grade,  .8  per  cent  are  normal  and  99. 1 per 
cent  are  over-age.  The  same  conditions  hold  for  the  higher 
primary  school,  although  in  the  last  two  years  the  percentage  of 
over-age  is  slightly  less.  In  the  first  year  of  the  higher  primary, 
2.3  per  cent  are  normal  age  and  97.6  per  cent  over-age;  in  the 
second  year  of  the  higher  primary,  4.7  per  cent  are  of  normal  age 
and  95.2  per  cent  are  over-age.  In  the  third  year  of  the  higher 
primary,  4.7  per  cent  are  normal  age  and  95.2  per  cent  are  over- 
age. The  first  under-age  is  shown  in  the  first  year  of  the  middle 
school,  and  is  present  to  some  extent  in  each  of  the  four  years. 
In  the  first  year  of  the  middle  school,  1.3  per  cent  are  under-age, 

8.1  per  cent  are  normal,  and  90.5  per  cent  are  over-age.  In  the 
second  year,  1.0  per  cent  are  under-age,  4.1  per  cent  are  normal, 
and  94.8  per  cent  are  over-age.  In  the  third  year,  10.5  per  cent 
are  under-age,  10.5  per  cent  normal,  and  78.9  per  cent  are  over- 
age. In  the  fourth  year,  3.4  per  cent  are  under-age,  1.7  per  cent 
are  normal,  and  94.8  per  cent  over-age. 


2 “Normal-age”  is  a term  applied  to  the  age  of  pupils  in  any  grade  of  the 
school  system  who  are  in  the  grade  and  of  the  age  they  would  be  had  they 
entered  at  legal  age.  It  is  customary,  however,  to  consider  both  six  and  seven 
as  ages  of  normal  entrance.  Cf.  Strayer,  G.  D.,  Some  Problems  in  City  Admin- 
istration, pp.  70,  76,  77. 

3 “Over-age”  is  a term  applied  to  the  age  of  pupils  in  any  grade  of  the  school 
system  who  are  older  than  they  would  be  had  they  entered  at  legal  age,  and 
progressed  one  grade  each  year. 


TABLE  OF  AGE-GRADE  DISTRIBUTIONS*  SHOWING  DEGREE  OF  OVER-AGE  WITH  LEGAL  ENTRANCE  AGE  AS  STANDARD 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Total 

NNH^ICOCDIN'UISOOOO 

nninNoooi)iNO)«io 

740 

Bl. 

1-1  1-1 

IN 

05 

IN 

1-1 

r 

00 

IN 

i 

<N 

i 

co 

<N 

r 

»o 

rH  1 

r 

24 

r 

23 

IN  -i  ^ ^ 

»o 

22 

2 

10 

CO 

21 

*1  rH  rH  N H O 

20 

20 

*H  MMHO00N 

37 

05 

NMN^^NhcO^ 

rH  (M  rH 

73 

00 

1-1  ^2Jh2Jhc5^'° 

94 

17 

N«N»^Tftr(OlOOO 

89 

16 

HHNNH^IQNW 

HH 

0*  rH 

94 

«5 

H N o 00  O 'f  oil 

N H N 

p IN 

IN 

82 

N 2 H H CO| 

r 

67 

CO 

fr.  00  05  O CO  CO 
CO 

HH 

69 

IN 

CO  CO  CO  05  CO 

^ *-H 

34 

3 

CO  CO  CO  «5|IN  rH 

28 

o 

H O CO 

“ 1 

1 

o 

05 

CO  CO 

" 1 

CO 

00 

co 

CO 

CO  11 

■*< 

CO 

1 

1 

CO 

Age 

1 Lower  Primary 

2 Lower  Primary 

3 Lower  Primary 

4 Lower  Primary 

1 Higher  Primary 

2 Higher  Primary 

3 Higher  Primary 

1 Middle 

2 Middle 

3 Middle 

4 Middle 

Total 

* Numbers  within  the  heavy  lines  show  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  grade  who  are  of  normal  age:  numbers  at  the  left  show  under-age,  and  at  the  right,  over-age. 


The  Classification  of  Pupils 


63 


PERCENTAGE  OF  UNDER-AGE,  NORMAL-AGE  AND  OVER-AGE  PUPILS  ON 
THE  BASIS  OF  LEGAL  ENTRANCE  AGE 


Under-Age 

Normal-Age 

Over-Age 

1 Lower  Primary 

24.3% 

75.6% 

2 Lower  Primary 

2.1% 

97.8% 

3 Lower  Primary 

3.2% 

96.7% 

4 Lower  Primary 

• 8% 

99.1% 

1 Higher  Primary 

2.3% 

97.6% 

2 Higher  Primary 

4.7% 

95.2% 

3 Higher  Primary 

4.7% 

95.2% 

1 Middle  School 

1.3% 

8.1% 

90.5% 

2 Middle  School 

1.0% 

4.1% 

94.8% 

3 Middle  School 

10.5% 

10.5% 

78.9% 

4 Middle  School 

3.4% 

1.7% 

94.8% 

Total 

i.o% 

4.7% 

94.1% 

If,  instead  of  on  the  basis  of  the  legal  age  of  school  entrance, 
the  median  entrance  age,  with  the  age  just  one  year  older,  is 
taken  as  a basis,  the  amount  of  over-age  is  as  shown  on  page  64. 

PERCENTAGE  OF  UNDER-AGE,  NORMAL-AGE  AND  OVER-AGE  PUPILS  ON 
THE  BASIS  OF  MEDIAN  ENTRANCE  AGE 


Under-Age 

Normal- Age 

Over-Age 

1 Lower  Primary 

37.8% 

18.9% 

48.2% 

2 Lower  Primary 

14.9% 

38.2% 

46.8% 

3 Lower  Primary 

12.9% 

25.8% 

61 . 2% 

4 Lower  Primary 

4.8% 

31.4% 

63.7% 

1 Higher  Primary 

9.3% 

20.9% 

69.7% 

2 Higher  Primary 

10.3% 

31.1% 

58.4% 

3 Higher  Primary 

9.7% 

21.4% 

59.5% 

1 Middle  School 

21.6% 

37.8% 

41.6% 

2 Middle  School 

18.5% 

38.1% 

43.2% 

3 Middle  School 

42.1% 

26.3% 

31.5% 

4 Middle  School 

15.7% 

45.6% 

38.6% 

Total 

15.6% 

31.4% 

52.7% 

Here  again  over-age  is  present  to  a marked  degree.  In  the 
first  year  lower  primary,  14,  or  37.8  per  cent,  are  under-age,  only 
7,  or  18.9  per  cent,  are  of  normal  age,  and  16,  or  43.2  per  cent, 
are  over-age.  For  the  next  four  years,  the  degree  of  over-age 
grows  steadily  larger:  7,  or  14.9  per  cent,  in  the  second  year 
lower  primary  are  under-age,  18,  or  38.2  per  cent,  normal  age, 
and  46.8  per  cent  over-age;  in  the  third  year  lower  primary,  4,  or 
12.9  per  cent,  are  under-age,  8,  or  25.8  per  cent,  normal  age,  and 
61.2  per  cent  over-age;  in  the  fourth  year  lower  primary,  6,  or  4.8 
per  cent,  are  under-age,  39,  or  31.4  per  cent,  normal  age,  and  79, 
or  63.7  per  cent,  over-age;  in  the  first  year  higher  primary,  8,  or 


64 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


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Numbers  within  the  heavy  lines  show  the  number  of  pupils  in  each  grade  who  are  of  normal  age,  numbers  at  the  left  show  under-age,  and  at  the  right,  over-age. 


The  Classification  of  Pupils 


65 


9.3  per  cent,  are  under-age,  18,  or  20.9  per  cent,  normal  age, 
and  60,  or  69.7  per  cent,  over-age.  In  the  second  year  higher  pri- 
mary, the  fact  that  the  eighteen  or  nineteen-year-old  girls  are 
leaving  school  affects  the  proportion  of  over-age.  Here  11,  or 

10.3  per  cent,  are  under-age,  33,  or  31.1  per  cent,  normal,  and 
62,  or  58.4  per  cent,  over-age.  In  third  year  higher  primary,  9.7  per 
cent  are  under-age,  21.4  per  cent  normal,  and  25,  or  59.5  per 
cent,  over-age.  In  the  middle  school  in  the  first  year,  16,  or 

21.6  per  cent,  are  under-age,  28,  or  37.8  per  cent,  normal,  and 

41.6  per  cent  over-age;  in  the  second  year,  18,  or  18.5  per  cent, 
are  under-age,  37,  or  38.1  per  cent,  normal,  and  42,  or  43.2  per 
cent,  over-age;  in  the  third  year,  16,  or  42.1  per  cent,  are  under- 
age, 10,  or  26.3  per  cent,  normal,  and  12,  or  31.5  per  cent,  over- 
age; in  the  fourth  year,  9,  or  15.7  per  cent,  are  under-age,  26, 
or  45.6  per  cent,  normal,  and  22,  or  38.6  per  cent,  over-age.  In 
the  middle  school,  the  effect  of  the  leaving  age  is  naturally 
very  marked,  since  the  normal  age  on  the  basis  of  the  median  age 
of  the  first  middle  grade  is  18  or  19  years  of  age. 

Thus  it  is  evident  that  even  upon  the  basis  of  the  four  years 
late  median  age  of  the  first  year  of  school,  the  succeeding  years  of 
school  contain  a large  number  of  over-age  pupils.  It  may  be  con- 
cluded, therefore,  that  the  schools  at  the  present  time  are  dealing 
with  a group  of  older  girls  in  the  lower  school  grades,  and  that 
these  girls  will  have  only  eight  or  nine  consecutive  years  in  school. 
To  enable  the  pupils  to  make  the  best  possible  use  of  this  limited 
time,  each  should  be  given  tasks  that  challenge  her  best  effort. 
Older  pupils  who  will  spend  only  one  or  two  years  in  school,  and 
who  have  learned  to  cook  and  sew  at  home  will  need  a very  differ- 
ent course  from  young  pupils  in  the  same  grade,  who  have  never 
learned  the  essentials  of  home-keeping,  and  who  will  probably  re- 
main at  school  for  ten  or  twelve  years.  Individual  freedom  in  the 
choice  of  courses,  especially  on  the  part  of  those  who  are  older,  is 
important  in  all  grades.  Younger  pupils  who  have  proved  their 
ability  should  be  encouraged  to  progress  rapidly  through  the 
system,  and  thus  secure  ample  time  for  preparation  for  the  pro- 
fessions. When  it  is  found  that  a large  proportion  of  the  pupils 
take  longer  than  the  scheduled  time  to  complete  certain  courses, 
adjustment  of  the  courses  to  the  ability  of  the  girls  should  be 
made.  This  will  necessitate  flexible  grade  divisions  with  frequent 
promotion,  special  rooms  for  over-age  and  under-age  pupils  and  a 


66 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


wide  variation  of  subjects.1  Adequate  solutions  to  the  various 
phases  of  this  problem  can  be  worked  out  only  by  conscious 
experiment  and  comparison  of  results  in  China. 

1 For  efforts  to  meet  similar  situations  in  America,  cf.  Cubberley,  E.  P., 
Public  School  Administration , Chap.  XVII-XVIII;  Strayer,  G.  D.,  Some 
Problems  in  City  School  Administration , Chap.  VI,  VIII,  XII. 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE  SUBJECTS  IN  THE  CURRICULUM 

The  studies  reported  by  the  girls  in  the  schools  closely  follow 
the  courses  outlined  in  the  government  and  mission  curricula. 

In  the  First  Year  Lower  Primary,  34  of  the  37  girls  reported 
weekly  schedules.  The  subjects  reported  by  the  highest  number 
of  girls  are:  Chinese  reading,  by  32  of  the  34  girls  of  that  grade 
reporting;  arithmetic,  30;  singing,  27;  English  and  Bible,  each  26; 
geography  and  writing,  each  23.  English  grammar  is  reported  by 
4 of  the  girls.  In  addition  to  the  26  reporting  Bible,  18  report 
moral  training  as  a part  of  their  weekly  schedules;  18  also  report 
physical  training.  Of  the  newer  subjects  hand-work  is  reported 
by  3,  and  stories  by  1. 

The  proportion  of  time  spent  on  each  subject  is  also  given  in  the 
schedule.  Whenever  the  periods  given  were  irregular,  or  the 
time  specified  uncertain,  the  number  of  hours  is  listed  under 
“Not  Reporting.”  Thus  the  proportion  of  time  is  approximately 
accurate.  Five  hours  per  week  is  spent  on  arithmetic  by  20  of 
the  girls,  on  English  by  22,  on  geography  by  14,  and  on  writing  by 
17.  Bible  is  studied  3 hours  a week  by  14.  Eleven  girls  spend 
2 hours  a week  on  physical  training. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FIRST  LOWER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  per  Week 

i 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Chinese  Reading 

2 

19 

1 

10 

32 

Arithmetic 

2 

1 

20 

7 

30 

Singing 

4 

9 

1 

5 

8 

27 

Bible 

2 

14 

8 

2 

26 

English 

1 

22 

3 

26 

Geography 

2 

4 

14 

3 

23 

Writing 

1 

2 

17 

3 

23 

Moral  Training 

13 

3 

1 

1 

18 

Physical  Training 

11 

2 

4 

1 

18 

Composition 

1 

2 

1 

2 

1 

1 

8 

Grammar 

1 

3 

4 

Drawing 

2 

1 

3 

Hand-work 

3 

3 

Botany 

1 

1 

2 

English  Writing 

2 

2 

History 

1 

1 

Music 

1 

1 

Stories 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  First  Lower  Primary,  37;  number  reporting  schedules,  34. 

67 


68 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


In  the  Second  Year  Lower  Primary  the  subjects  are  practically 
the  same . Singing  is  reported  by  4 1 of  the  45  girls ; arithmetic  by 
39;  Chinese  reading  by  39;  geography  by  37;  writing  by  37;  Bible 
by  36;  English  by  35;  drawing  by  29;  and  physical  training  by 
29.  Three  report  hand-work,  2 report  manual  arts,  and  2 report 
stories.  The  proportion  of  time  is  given  as  follows:  16  spend  3 
hours  on  arithmetic;  25  spend  5 hours  on  Bible;  14  spend  3 hours, 
and  8 spend  5 hours  on  Chinese  reading.  Sixteen  spend  2 hours 
on  drawing;  26  spend  5 hours  on  English;  18  spend  2 hours  on 
geography;  14,  2 hours  on  grammar;  14,  2 hours  on  moral  train- 
ing; 19,  2 hours  on  physical  training:  28,  2 hours  on  singing; 
and  28,  5 hours  on  writing. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— SECOND  LOWER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

12 

13 

17 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Singing 

2 

28 

1 

1 

3 

6 

41 

Arithmetic 

1 

2 

16 

2 

10 

2 

6 

39 

Chinese  Reading 

1 

14 

3 

1 

8 

1 

1 

1 

9 

39 

Geography 

18 

3 

8 

1 

7 

37 

Writing 

1 

2 

28 

1 

5 

37 

Bible 

2 

2 

25 

1 

6 

36 

English 

1 

1 

26 

1 

1 

1 

1 

3 

35 

Drawing 

8 

16 

1 

2 

2 

29 

Physical  Training 

1 

19 

6 

1 

1 

1 

29 

Moral  Training 

2 

14 

1 

2 

19 

Grammar 

1 

14 

1 

1 

17 

Composition 

2 

3 

1 

1 

7 

Botany 

1 

1 

1 

1 

2 

6 

Hand-work 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Manual  Arts 

1 

1 

2 

Stories 

1 

1 

2 

History 

1 

1 

Letter  Writing 

1 

1 

Music 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  Second  Lower  Primary,  47;  number  reporting  sechedules,  45. 


In  the  Third  Year  Lower  Primary  arithmetic,  reported  by  28 
of  the  31  girls;  Chinese  reading,  reported  by  30;  Bible,  reported 
by  29;  geography,  reported  by  25;  physical  training,  reported  by 
21;  and  writing,  reported  by  24,  lead  the  subjects.  Only  13  of 
the  31  girls  report  English  in  this  grade.  Hand-work  and  manual 
training  are  reported  by  4,  sanitation  by  6,  and  sewing  by  5.  The 
proportion  of  time  on  each  of  these  studies  is  given  by  only  a 
scattering  few. 

The  studies  of  the  Fourth  Year  Lower  Primary  were  reported 
by  118  out  of  the  total  of  124  girls:  111  are  studying  Chinese 
reading;  107,  arithmetic;  103,  geography;  98,  Bible;  75,  writing; 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


69 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— THIRD  LOWER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

12 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Chinese  Reading 

1 

8 

2 

1 

3 

15 

30 

Bible 

6 

2 

1 

4 

2 

1 

13 

29 

Arithmetic 

1 

8 

3 

3 

13 

28 

Geography 

5 

4 

4 

2 

10 

25 

Writing 

2 

2 

5 

1 

1 

13 

24 

Physical  Training 

2 

4 

1 

6 

8 

21 

English 

1 

2 

10 

13 

Moral  Training 

2 

3 

1 

5 

11 

Singing 

3 

2 

1 

1 

4 

11 

Drawing 

2 

6 

1 

9 

History 

6 

1 

2 

9 

Sanitation 

5 

1 

6 

Sewing 

1 

4 

5 

Ethics 

4 

4 

Manual  Training 

3 

3 

Art 

2 

2 

Classics 

1 

1 

2 

Music 

1 

1 

2 

Natural  Science 

1 

1 

2 

Composition 

1 

1 

English  Writing 

1 

1 

Hand- work 

1 

1 

Mental  Arithmetic 

1 

1 

Piano 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  Third  Lower  Primary,  31;  number  reporting  schedules,  31. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FOURTH  LOWER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Chinese  Reading 

4 

6 

5 

3 

32 

1 

5 

3 

8 

3 

41 

111 

Arithmetic 

4 

5 

3 

3 

52 

1 

8 

1 

30 

107 

Geography 

12 

29 

4 

3 

18 

37 

103 

Bible 

4 

28 

14 

1 

16 

1 

1 

33 

98 

Writing 

10 

10 

6 

3 

23 

23 

75 

English 

3 

2 

3 

26 

4 

34 

72 

History 

3 

24 

12 

1 

3 

22 

65 

Drawing 

21 

23 

2 

12 

58 

Physical  Education 

5 

18 

3 

14 

18 

58 

Singing 

14 

10 

7 

1 

4 

21 

57 

Grammar 

4 

3 

2 

2 

8 

15 

34 

Composition 

12 

18 

1 

1 

32 

Moral  Training 

2 

5 

2 

1 

13 

23 

Sewing 

3 

13 

1 

6 

23 

General  Science 

7 

2 

3 

1 

1 

7 

21 

Ethics 

11 

1 

2 

2 

3 

19 

Classics 

1 

3 

2 

1 

2 

1 

6 

16 

Sanitation 

9 

2 

2 

3 

16 

Essay 

7 

1 

1 

6 

15 

Letter  Writing 

14 

1 

15 

Hand-work 

6 

3 

2 

2 

13 

Music 

2 

1 

3 

6 

12 

Physics 

3 

7 

1 

11 

Hygiene 

5 

5 

10 

Art 

3 

5 

8 

Recitations 

1 

7 

8 

Chemistry 

5 

5 

Foreign  History 

1 

2 

1 

4 

Piano 

1 

1 

2 

Domestic  Science 

1 

1 

Manual  Training 

1 

1 

Mental  Arithmetic 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  First  Higher  Primary,  124;  number  reporting  schedules,  118. 


70 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


72,  English;  65,  history;  58,  physical  education;  58,  drawing; 
and  57,  singing;  23,  sewing;  16,  sanitation;  13,  hand-work;  1, 
manual  training;  and  1,  domestic  science. 

Although  the  period  schedule  varies  from  1 to  5 periods  in  most 
of  the  subjects,  and  for  arithmetic,  Chinese,  and  English  from  1 
to  10  periods,  usually  arithmetic,  Chinese  reading,  English  and 
writing  are  accorded  5 recitation  periods  per  week;  Bible,  draw- 
ing, geography,  history,  physical  training,  and  sewing,  2 periods; 
and  sanitation,  domestic  science  and  hand-work,  1 period  per 
week.  Twenty-three  give  drawing  2 periods  per  week;  21,  1 
period  per  week. 

In  the  First  Year  Higher  Primary,  the  total  number,  86,  re- 
ported weekly  schedules  of  recitation  periods:  73  are  studying 
arithmetic;  73,  Chinese  reading;  72,  geography;  69,  Bible;  68, 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FIRST  HIGHER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Arithmetic 

31 

1 

23 

18 

73 

Chinese  Reading 

6 

8 

40 

1 

1 

1 

16 

73 

Geography 

1 

38 

1 

3 

29 

72 

Bible 

1 

6 

30 

2 

6 

24 

69 

History 

32 

8 

7 

21 

68 

English 

1 

1 

1 

42 

3 

2 

1 

12 

63 

Physical  Training 

83 

1 

1 

2 

14 

51 

Singing 

29 

2 

4 

1 

12 

48 

Drawing 

25 

8 

7 

40 

Writing 

2 

2 

1 

14 

18 

37 

Composition 

31 

2 

1 

1 

35 

Sewing 

29 

5 

34 

Letter  Writing 

2 

29 

1 

32 

Music 

7 

13 

2 

4 

26 

Essay 

16 

3 

1 

1 

6 

27 

General  Science 

1 

3 

4 

2 

15 

25 

Hand-work 

13 

1 

1 

1 

2 

18 

Art 

1 

2 

1 

11 

2 

17 

Moral  Training 

3 

5 

8 

16 

Classics 

3 

1 

4 

2 

10 

Sanitation 

6 

2 

8 

Ethics 

1 

6 

7 

Physiology 

3 

1 

1 

1 

1 

7 

Mencius 

1 

5 

6 

Mandarin 

1 

3 

4 

Religion 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Five  Books 

1 

1 

2 

Rhetoric 

1 

1 

2 

Map  Drawing 

2 

2 

Agriculture 

1 

1 

Physics 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  Second  Higher  Primary,  86;  number  reporting  schedules,  86. 


history;  and  63,  English;  34,  sewing;  18,  hand-work;  8,  sanitation; 
and  4,  Mandarin.1  Thirty-one  spend  2 recitation  hours  per 

1 The  language  which  is  most  universally  spoken  in  China,  and  which  will 
probably  become  the  national  language. 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


71 


week  on  arithmetic,  and  23,  5 recitation  hours  on  Chinese  reading. 
English  and  sanitation  are  practically  5-period  subjects;  Bible 
and  geography  are  3-period-per-week  subjects  and  history,  a 
2-period-per-week  subject.  Sewing  and  hand-work  are  reported 
as  1-period-per-week  subjects. 

The  total  number,  106  girls,  in  the  Second  Year  Higher  Primary 
grade  reported  their  weekly  recitations:  102  study  mathematics 
(94  arithmetic,  7 mathematics,  1 algebra);  98  study  Chinese 
reading;  94,  history;  90,  geography;  89,  English;  88  Bible;  and 
63,  physical  training;  31,  sewing;  20,  sanitation;  and  9,  hand-work. 
The  study  of  Mandarin  is  reported  by  10  girls.  Subjects  for  the 
most  part  given  5 periods  per  week  are  arithmetic,  Chinese 
reading,  and  English;  those  given  3 periods  per  week  are  Bible, 
geography,  and  sanitation.  Mandarin  is  usually  given  2 periods 
per  week.  One  girl  reports  sewing  2 periods  per  week;  and  16,  1 
p3riod.  History  and  hand-work  are  reported  as  1-period-per- 
week  subjects. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— SECOND  HIGHER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

12 

13 

14 

Blanks 

Total 

Periods  Per  Week 

Chinese  Reading 

2 

15 

3 

34 

2 

12 

1 

2 

1 

26 

98 

Arithmetic 

22 

5 

49 

3 

15 

94 

History- 

32 

9 

17 

14 

2 

20 

94 

Geography 

English 

10 

11 

12 

42 

3 

2 

5 

49 

2 

1 

1 

22 

19 

90 

89 

Bible 

11 

27 

6 

16 

28 

88 

Physical  Training 

2 

32 

11 

5 

5 

12 

67 

General  Science 

2 

37 

3 

5 

3 

6 

56 

Writing 

8 

14 

3 

2 

16 

2 

9 

54 

Music 

19 

15 

2 

1 

37 

Singing 

18 

3 

4 

2 

7 

34 

Sewing 

16 

11 

4 

31 

Drawing 

12 

13 

4 

29 

Composition 

10 

4 

1 

1 

10 

1 

26 

Classics 

2 

5 

1 

3 

1 

12 

25 

Essays 

14 

5 

2 

4 

25 

Sanitation 

1 

1 

3 

2 

13 

20 

Art 

5 

1 

3 

8 

2 

19 

Ethics 

3 

3 

8 

2 

3 

19 

Moral  Training 

12 

3 

4 

19 

Romanized 

11 

11 

Mandarin 

9 

1 

10 

Hand-work 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

9 

Manual  Training 

9 

9 

Letter  Writing 

7 

1 

8 

Physiology 

3 

3 

2 

8 

Mathematics 

6 

1 

7 

Grammar 

1 

2 

3 

6 

Physics 

3 

3 

Mencius 

2 

2 

Piano 

1 

1 

2 

Rhetoric 

1 

1 

2 

Algebra 

1 

1 

Five  Books 

1 

1 

Number  in  grade,  106;  number  reporting  schedules,  106. 


72 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


In  the  Third  Year  Higher  Primary,  all  of  the  girls,  42  in  number, 
report  weekly  schedules:  42  report  the  study  of  history;  41  report 
mathematics  (29  arithmetic,  1 algebra,  11  mathematics);  41, 
Bible,  and  English;  38,  Chinese  reading;  28,  physical  training; 
21,  writing;  20,  geography  and  singing.  Eleven  study  Mandarin ; 
12,  hygiene;  12,  hand-work;  and  3,  sanitation.  Five  periods  are 
usually  given  to  arithmetic,  Chinese  reading,  and  English;  3 
periods  to  hygiene  and  sanitation;  2 periods  to  geography  and 
history.  Thirteen  recited  Bible  3 periods  per  week,  and  12,  5 
periods  per  week. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— THIRD  HIGHER  PRIMARY 


Number  of  Recitation 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 

Total 

Periods  Per  Week 

1 

porting 

History 

13 

4 

6 

8 

11 

42 

Bible 

13 

6 

12 

10 

41 

English 

4 

25 

2 

10 

41 

Chinese  Reading 

1 

4 

1 

20 

1 

11 

38 

Arithmetic 

1 

18 

10 

29 

Physical  Training 

20 

2 

6 

28 

Writing 

10 

4 

2 

5 

21 

Geography 

1 

13 

2 

2 

2 

20 

Singing 

13 

2 

5 

20 

Music 

3 

11 

2 

16 

Classics 

1 

7 

6 

1 

15 

Composition 

Hand-work 

3 

10 

2 

1 

1 

8 

2 

15 

12 

Hygiene 

12 

12 

Essay 

2 

3 

6 

11 

Mandarin 

11 

11 

Mathematics 

11 

11 

Romanized 

10 

10 

Grammar 

6 

6 

Sanitation 

2 

1 

3 

Biology 

2 

2 

Algebra 

Drawing 

1 

1 

1 

Ethics 

1 

1 

General  Science 

1 

1 

Moral  Training 

1 

1 

1 

Physical  Geography 

1 

Letter  Writing 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  42;  number  reporting  schedules,  42. 


The  studies  most  frequently  reported  by  the  pupils  in  the 
primary  schools  are  arithmetic,  English,  Chinese  reading  and 
writing,  Bible,  geography,  and  history.  These  subjects  are 
studied,  in  every  grade,  although  history  is  not  studied  by  a 
large  number  until  the  first  year  higher  primary.  Five  recitation 
periods  each  week  are  usually  given  to  arithmetic,  English, 
Chinese  reading  and  writing;  2 or  3 periods  to  Bible,  history,  and 
geography.  Physical  training  is  reported  by  a large  number  in 
the  lower  primary  grades,  but  drops  to  a secondary  place  in  the 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


73 


last  four  years.  The  subjects  of  hygiene  and  sanitation,  sewing, 
hand-work,  and  manual  training  are  studied  by  relatively  few 
pupils. 

The  schedules  of  the  girls  in  the  four  years  of  the  middle  school 
follow  in  order. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FIRST  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Bible 

12 

18 

8 

2 

8 

13 

61 

Algebra 

14 

17 

8 

2 

15 

56 

History 

1 

14 

14 

2 

18 

6 

55 

Singing 

15 

18 

6 

1 

6 

3 

49 

English 

1 

3 

3 

18 

1 

2 

15 

43 

Physical  Training 

8 

17 

3 

1 

11 

1 

1 

42 

Chinese  Literature 

3 

3 

2 

20 

3 

9 

40 

Composition 

4 

28 

2 

1 

2 

37 

Grammar 

8 

15 

9 

2 

34 

Writing 

5 

3 

8 

4 

4 

24 

Drawing 

23 

23 

Essay 

10 

10 

20 

Arithmetic 

8 

3 

6 

1 

1 

19 

Classics 

6 

2 

7 

3 

18 

Reading 

4 

1 

5 

1 

1 

6 

18 

Music 

6 

5 

3 

1 

1 

16 

French 

14 

14 

Biology 

2 

6 

5 

13 

Education 

3 

5 

4 

12 

Physiology 

1 

10 

11 

Chinese  History 

1 

1 

2 

6 

10 

Chemistry 

3 

6 

1 

10 

Sanitation 

1 

1 

8 

10 

General  Science 

6 

2 

8 

House  Management 

8 

8 

Physics 

1 

5 

6 

Piano 

4 

1 

1 

6 

Sewing 

1 

5 

6 

Botany 

6 

6 

Geography 

2 

3 

5 

Calculus 

4 

4 

Cooking 

3 

1 

4 

Domestic  Science 

4 

4 

Astronomy 
Household  Arts 

3 

3 

3 

3 

Mandarin 

2 

1 

3 

Geometry 

2 

2 

General  History 

1 

1 

2 

Letter  Writing 

1 

1 

2 

Moral  Training 

2 

2 

Biography 

1 

1 

English  Composition 

1 

1 

Expression 

1 

1 

Mencius 

1 

1 

Number  in  grade,  74;  number  reporting  schedules,  74. 


74 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— SECOND  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

English 

1 

13 

11 

40 

5 

1 

3 

18 

92 

Bible 

7 

17 

15 

17 

9 

1 

17 

83 

History 

1 

24 

20 

9 

9 

2 

10 

75 

Physical  Training 

16 

28 

12 

10 

7 

73 

Chinese  Literature 

2 

8 

10 

21 

5 

2 

9 

57 

Algebra 

5 

13 

7 

9 

10 

12 

56 

Composition 

8 

27 

2 

7 

6 

50 

Singing 

24 

4 

9 

1 

1 

8 

49 

Geometry 

12 

11 

5 

8 

36 

Grammar 

7 

3 

7 

13 

1 

2 

33 

Physical  Geography 

1 

3 

6 

16 

1 

4 

31 

Classics 

1 

4 

9 

3 

13 

30 

Writing 

16 

5 

9 

30 

Drawing 

18 

8 

1 

27 

Reading 

1 

13 

6 

1 

21 

Physiology 

1 

6 

12 

1 

20 

Essay  Writing 

13 

2 

4 

19 

Education 

11 

6 

1 

18 

Chemistry 

2 

9 

6 

17 

Geology 

8 

1 

6 

15 

Music 

2 

4 

1 

1 

4 

3 

15 

House  Management 

12 

2 

14 

Mandarin 

12 

1 

13 

Arithmetic 

1 

2 

6 

1 

1 

11 

History  of  Education 

1 

2 

3 

5 

11 

Botany 

10 

10 

General  History 

1 

1 

5 

3 

10 

Piano 

1 

9 

10 

General  Science 

10 

10 

Calculus 

4 

4 

1 

9 

American  Literature 

1 

7 

8 

Domestic  Science 

8 

8 

Astronomy 

7 

7 

French 

7 

7 

Psychology 

7 

7 

Teaching  of  Drawing 

1 

6 

7 

Cooking 

6 

6 

Chinese  History 

2 

2 

4 

Sewing 

1 

2 

3 

Geography 

1 

1 

2 

Moral  Training 

2 

2 

Sanitation 

2 

2 

Normal  Training 

1 

1 

2 

Conversation 

1 

1 

Embroidery 

1 

1 

History  of  Literature 

1 

1 

Oratory 

1 

1 

Zoology 

l 

1 

Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


75 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— THIRD  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Bible 

1 

2 

9 

2 

2 

3 

15 

34 

English 

1 

1 

1 

6 

4 

6 

15 

34 

Chinese  Literature 

1 

4 

2 

1 

3 

8 

19 

Essay 

9 

3 

1 

4 

17 

Singing 

6 

5 

6 

17 

Geometry 

1 

9 

5 

15 

History 

6 

2 

2 

4 

14 

Writing 

1 

4 

9 

14 

Classics 

1 

7 

1 

5 

14 

Psychology 

1 

5 

1 

6 

13 

Chemistry 

1 

9 

10 

Composition 

1 

4 

5 

10 

Physical  Training 

2 

4 

3 

9 

General  Science 

3 

3 

2 

8 

Physiology 

7 

7 

Chinese  Reading 

1 

5 

6 

Piano 

3 

1 

1 

1 

6 

House  Management 

4 

1 

5 

Mandarin 

5 

5 

Physics 

5 

5 

Ancient  Literature 

5 

5 

Algebra 

1 

1 

2 

4 

General  History 

1 

3 

4 

Zoology 

4 

4 

Arithmetic 

2 

1 

3 

English  History 

1 

1 

1 

3 

Music 

2 

1 

3 

Sanitation 

2 

1 

3 

Astronomy 

2 

2 

Grammar 

2 

2 

Hand-work 

2 

2 

History  of  Bible 

1 

1 

2 

Moral  Training 

1 

1 

2 

Physical  Geography 

2 

2 

Trigonometry 

2 

2 

Drawing 

2 

2 

Botany 

1 

1 

Geography 

1 

1 

Hygiene 

1 

1 

Letter  Writing 

1 

1 

Sewing 

1 

1 

English  Stories 

1 

1 

Debate 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  38;  number  reporting  schedules,  37. 


76 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FOURTH  MIDDLE  SCHOOL 


Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

13 

15 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

English 

1 

3 

19 

3 

2 

2 

10 

1 

1 

9 

51 

Chinese  Literature 

2 

2 

14 

18 

1 

9 

46 

Bible 

2 

10 

15 

7 

8 

42 

Chemistry 

2 

23 

1 

6 

32 

History 

1 

20 

3 

1 

1 

3 

29 

Mandarin 

7 

2 

14 

1 

24 

Composition 

3 

12 

3 

1 

1 

20 

Essay  Writing 

14 

3 

2 

19 

Classics 

3 

5 

5 

5 

18 

Grammar 

3 

13 

1 

17 

Methods  of  Teaching 

5 

2 

9 

16 

Geometry 

3 

7 

2 

12 

Music 

7 

1 

1 

1 

10 

Ethics 

1 

3 

1 

1 

6 

Arithmetic 

2 

3 

5 

Algebra 

1 

1 

2 

1 

5 

Hand-work 

2 

2 

4 

Normal  Training 

2 

2 

4 

Moral  Training 

1 

2 

3 

Astronomy 

2 

2 

Geography 

1 

1 

2 

Drawing 

2 

2 

Foreign  History 

2 

2 

Conversation 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  58;  number  reporting  schedules,  54. 


In  the  higher  schools,  algebra,  geometry,  and  mathematics 
largely  replace  arithmetic;  Chinese  literature  replaces  Chinese 
reading.  The  sciences  of  biology,  botany,  chemistry,  and 
physics  replace  geography;  English  and  the  Bible  continue 
throughout.  The  tendency  toward  the  newer  subjects  of  sewing, 
household  arts,  household  management,  sanitation  and  hygiene 
may  be  traced  in  these  schools  as  well  as  in  the  lower  ones,  and 
occasionally  professional  educational  subjects  are  introduced  in 
the  last  three  years. 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


77 


The  schedules  of  the  students  in  normal  preparatory  and  normal 
schools  are  reported  as  follows: 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— NORMAL  SCHOOL  PREPARATORY 


Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Arithmetic 

1 

1 

4 

6 

Chinese  Literature 

1 

4 

1 

6 

Geography 

5 

i 

6 

Music 

1 

5 

6 

Physical  Training 

6 

6 

Drawing 

6 

6 

Writing 

1 

1 

4 

6 

Composition 

5 

5 

History 

4 

1 

5 

Moral  Training 

5 

5 

Sewing 

5 

5 

Chemistry 

1 

1 

Education 

1 

1 

Essay  Writing 

1 

1 

Hand-work 

1 

1 

History  of  Literature 

1 

1 

Zoology 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  6;  number  reporting  schedules,  6. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— FIRST  NORMAL 


Recitation  Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

Total 

Composition 

7 

9 

16 

Arithmetic 

1 

4 

3 

5 

13 

Chinese  Reading 

2 

5 

2 

4 

13 

Music 

2 

9 

1 

1 

13 

Bible 

4 

1 

5 

1 

11 

Geography 

5 

1 

3 

1 

10 

History  of  Education 

10 

10 

Drawing 

6 

3 

9 

History 

4 

3 

7 

Classics 

2 

6 

8 

Physical  Training 

1 

2 

3 

1 

7 

Psychology 

7 

7 

Methods  of  Study 

1 

4 

1 

6 

English 

1 

3 

1 

5 

Methods  of  Teaching 

1 

4 

5 

General  Science 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

Hand-work 

1 

3 

4 

Moral  Training 

2 

2 

4 

Algebra 

2 

1 

3 

Botany 

1 

2 

3 

Chinese  Literature 

3 

3 

Physiology 

3 

3 

Sewing 

3 

3 

Writing 

3 

3 

Kindergarten 

1 

1 

English  History 

1 

1 

Education 

1 

1 

Mother  Play 

1 

1 

Practice  Teaching  Bible 

1 

1 

Practice  Teaching  Geography 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  17;  number  reporting  schedules,  17. 


78 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— SECOND  NORMAL 


Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

14 

15 

16 

18 

20 

Not  Re- 
porting 

Total 

Chinese  Reading 

1 

2 

4 

8 

1 

2 

5 

23 

Physical  Training 

7 

2 

10 

2 

21 

Arithmetic 

10 

4 

5 

19 

English 

3 

9 

6 

1 

19 

History 

19 

19 

Education 

8 

10 

18 

Chemistry 

8 

2 

7 

17 

Geography 

10 

5 

2 

17 

Composition 

7 

5 

3 

1 

16 

Bible 

10 

5 

15 

Music 

1 

12 

2 

15 

Practice  Teaching 

5 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

13 

Drawing 

2 

9 

11 

Hand-work 

1 

9 

10 

Moral  Training 

2 

8 

10 

Sewing 

8 

1 

1 

10 

Chinese  Literature 

3 

6 

9 

Writing 

9 

9 

Singing 

1 

1 

7 

9 

Mandarin 

8 

8 

Grammar 

7 

7 

Physics 

6 

6 

Physiology 

1 

1 

1 

1 

4 

Psychology 

1 

2 

1 

4 

General  Science 

2 

1 

3 

Essay 

2 

2 

Botany 

1 

1 

Kindergarten 

1 

1 

Mencius 

1 

1 

Methods  of  Teaching 

1 

1 

Zoology 

1 

1 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  29;  number  reporting  schedules,  28. 


SUBJECTS  OF  STUDY— THIRD  NORMAL 


Recitation  Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

Not 

Reporting 

Total 

Chemistry 

1 

4 

6 

11 

Physical  Training 

2 

4 

5 

11 

Sewing 

11 

11 

Education 

5 

5 

10 

History 

6 

3 

1 

10 

English 

2 

5 

1 

8 

Music 

1 

7 

8 

Chinese  Reading 

4 

3 

7 

Bible 

6 

6 

Composition 

1 

5 

6 

Household  Management 

6 

6 

Magazine 

6 

6 

Arithmetic 

2 

3 

5 

Geography 

5 

5 

Letter  Writing 

5 

5 

Hand-work 

2 

2 

4 

Poetry 

4 

4 

Writing 

3 

1 

4 

Chinese  Literature 

3 

3 

Essay  Writing 

3 

3 

Grammar 

2 

1 

3 

Singing 

3 

3 

Zoology 

3 

3 

Classics 

2 

2 

Drawing 

2 

2 

Home-work 

2 

2 

Mandarin 

2 

2 

Moral  Training 

2 

2 

Physics 

2 

2 

Number  of  girls  in  grade,  11;  number  reporting  schedules,  11. 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


79 


In  the  normal  schools  the  subjects  of  the  lower  schools  are 
reviewed.  To  these  education,  history  of  education,  kinder- 
garten, methods  of  study,  methods  of  teaching,  practice  teaching, 
practice  teaching  of  geography  and  Bible  and  psychology  are 
added.  The  data  from  the  Normal  Schools  are  inadequate  for  a 
definite  study. 

IMPORTANT  SUBJECTS  OF  THE  CURRICULUM— REPORTED  BY  1119 
SCHOOLGIRLS 


Number  of  Recitation 
Periods  Per  Week 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

Periods 
Not  Re- 
ported 

Totals 

Liberal  Arts  Subjects: 

Chinese  Classics  and 

Literature 

29 

124 

154 

100 

296 

34 

44 

16 

15 

23 

1 

2 

297 

1135 

English 

14 

81 

78 

51 

419 

50 

7 

8- 

37 

3 

3 

1 

2 

232 

986 

Mathematics 

20 

164 

183 

53 

359 

36 

12 

4 

1 

1 

190 

1043 

Bible 

34 

142 

219 

84 

161 

8 

5 

1 

236 

890 

History 

52 

266 

128 

84 

71 

5 

1 

148 

761 

Geography 

39 

184 

141 

34 

108 

1 

164 

671 

Science 

17 

192 

93 

56 

28 

3 

63 

452 

Chinese  Composition 

71 

84 

9 

14 

31 

2 

10 

211 

Practical  Arts  Subjects: 

Sewing 

53 

63 

13 

1 

1 

25 

156 

Hand-work 

84 

35 

7 

3 

7 

12 

148 

Sanitation 

19 

8 

17 

11 

34 

89 

Domestic  Science 

51 

28 

79 

Hygiene 

13 

12 

7 

5 

39 

Manual  Training 

5 

9 

1 

15 

Cooking 

4 

4 

Professional  Educational 

Subjects: 

Psychology 

2 

22 

1 

1 

7 

33 

Education 

6 

9 

16 

31 

(14 

15 

16 

18 

20) 

Practice  Teaching 

6 

1 

5 

5 

1 

1 

2 

1 

1 

1 

1 

22 

History  of  Education 

1 

2 

3 

5 

11 

Methods  of  Teaching 

1 

5 

1 

7 

Methods  of  Study 

1 

5 

1 

I 

7 

Kindergarten  Training 

3 

1 

4 

When  the  courses  of  study  are  considered  as  a unit,  it  becomes 
apparent  that  out  of  the  1119  girls  reporting,  there  are  1135,1 
reports  on  Chinese  reading,  classics  and  literature;  986,  or  88.1 
per  cent,  report  English  and  grammar;  890,  or  86.7  per  cent, 
Bible;  1042,  or  93.2  per  cent,  mathematics;  761,  or  68  per  cent, 
history;  671,  or  59.9  per  cent,  geography;  452,  or  40.3  per  cent, 
science;  302,  or  26.9  per  cent,  domestic  science  in  its  various 
phases;  128,  or  11.4  per  cent,  hygiene  and  sanitation;  and  115,  or 
10.2  per  cent,  subjects  in  normal  training. 

1 Two  hundred  and  twenty-six  report  Chinese  classics,  521  report  Chinese 
reading,  and  388  report  Chinese  literature. 


80 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Mathematics,  Chinese,  English,  Bible,  history,  and  science 
are  thus  the  predominating  subjects.  Unquestionably  each  one 
of  these  supplies  in  some  degree  a demand  of  society.  Arith- 
metic, Chinese — the  mother  tongue  of  the  pupils — religion, 
science,  and  history,  are  all  integral  parts  of  the  life  experience 
of  every  Chinese  girl.  English  is  an  important  medium  in  all 
higher  education  to-day.  Moreover,  among  the  business  and 
professional  classes  it  is  desired  for  intercourse  with  powerful 
foreigners  who  live  in  every  important  city. 


LIBERAL  ARTS  SUBJECTS 


_ ____  Chinese  Cleselee  and 

Literature-1135  Pupils 
lXatheaatles-1043  Pupil* 


English- 986  Pupil* 

IPMIIHIIIM  Pupil* 

■HHKHHBnHr:!::.-;-'!!  Pupil* 

Pupils 

^^■^■■■^■Scisnee-452  Pupils 
Chinees  Coaposition-211  Pupil* 


PRACTICAL  ARTS  SUBJECTS 

■■■■■I  S*»ing-155  Pupil* 

Band»ork-148  pupil* 
^^■Sanitation-89  pupils 
■■Doaestie  Scisncs-79  Pupil* 
mHygl*n*-S9  pupils 
■Kanual  Training-15  Pupil* 

I Coohing-4  pupils 


PR0JSSSI05AI  KDUCATIOSAI  SUBJECTS 


■p*yehology-33  Pupil* 

■ Edueation-31  Pupils 

■ practice  Tsachlng-22  Pupils 

■ History  of  Edueatlcn-11  Pupils 
methods  of  Tsaching-7  Pupils 
IXsthcds  of  Study- 7 pupils 

I Klndsrgartan  Tralning-4  Pupil* 


Fig.  7.  Important  Subjects  of  the  Curriculum. 

In  an  analysis  of  the  curriculum,  however,  it  is  evident  that  the 
schedule,  especially  in  the  lower  grades,  is  very  heavily  loaded. 
The  study  of  the  Chinese  language — character  reading,  writing 
and  composition — is  extremely  difficult  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  it 
is  the  mother  tongue  of  the  pupils.  Ability  to  read  the  literature 
which  is  considered  essential  for  scholars,  or  even  ability  to  read 
the  newspapers  and  magazines,  is  rarely  acquired  without  years 
of  intensive  work.  To  this  subject  are  added,  even  in  the  lower 
primary  school,  history,  science,  mathematics  and  foreign  lan- 
guage. In  the  mission  schools  Bible  completes  the  schedule. 
The  mitigating  features  of  the  situation  are  that  the  girls  in 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


81 


school  at  the  present  time  are  from  four  to  six  years  older  than 
the  normal  ages  in  the  lower  grades,  and  that  they  are  probably  a 
highly  selected  group  intellectually  as  well  as  socially.  It  is  to  be 
expected,  however,  that  the  work  will  be  too  severe  for  the 
younger  group  of  perhaps  average  intelligence  which  will  come 
into  the  schools  in  increasing  numbers.  To  relieve  this  over- 
loading, the  requirements  in  Chinese  may  be  modified,1  parts  of 
arithmetic  and  higher  mathematics  omitted,  since  the  theory  of 
formal  discipline  can  no  longer  justify  their  continuance  as  a 
subject  for  study  in  the  lower  grades,  large  portions  of  Western 
history  supplanted  by  history  of  the  nations  of  the  Far  East,  and 
science  applied  to  daily  experience.  To  evaluate  every  portion 
of  every  subject  in  the  curriculum;  to  discard  the  useless  and  to 
keep  only  that  part  which  is  applicable  to  the  lives  of  the  Chinese 
schoolgirls;  to  experiment,  to  test  the  results  of  every  change,  and 
to  adopt  only  the  best, — is  an  imperative  need  of  education  for 
girls  in  China  to-day. 

The  reduction  of  the  present  course  of  study  is  made  more 
necessary  to  provide  time  for  the  important  subjects,  now  neg- 
lected, which  should  be  emphasized  in  the  curriculum.  Since 
only  36.4  per  cent  of  the  girls  are  studying  subjects  which  relate 
directly  either  to  the  home  or  to  community  life,2  since  the 
majority  of  the  girls  live  away  from  home  most  of  the  years  they 
attend  school  thus  having  little  opportunity  to  obtain  training  in 
household  science,  and  since  each  of  the  girls  will  become  a part  of 
some  social  group  after  completing  the  school  course,  there  is 
evident  need  for  a closer  relation  of  the  curriculum  to  immediate 
home  and  community  life.  With  the  present  system,  malad- 
justments in  family  and  village  are  frequent.  Mothers-in-law 
often  dread  the  new  order  of  courtship  by  which  a son  brings  into 
the  home  a Western  trained  daughter-in-law  who  cannot  cook 
and  despises  housework.  Many  schoolgirls  dread  marriage  as  a 
“prison-house, ” and  welcome  any  plan  which  will  free  them  from 
the  responsibility  and  meaningless  drudgery  of  housekeeping. 
In  one  village  the  daughter  so  evidently  disapproved  her  mother’s 

1 Chinese  educators  have  already  given  much  attention  to  this  subject,  and 
have  introduced  readers  containing  selections  from  literature  and  the  classics. 
Many  are  also  working  upon  the  problem  of  the  character. 

2 Only  26.3  per  cent  are  studying  domestic  science,  10.8  per  cent,  hygiene  and 
sanitation,  and  none,  sociology  or  civics. 


82 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


way  of  doing  things  that  the  mother  broke  up  the  home,  sent  all 
of  the  children  to  boarding  school,  and  went  herself  to  a women’s 
training  school.  The  benefits  derived  from  a school  curriculum 
which  separates  pupils  from  life  and  gives  neither  appreciation  of 
nor  training  in  the  fundamental  processes  of  home  keeping  may 
be  definite  and  measurable,  but  they  are  accompanied  by  great 
and  unnecessary  evils. 

Furthermore,  such  a curriculum  is  directly  opposed  to  the  trend 
of  modern  educational  theory  and  practice.  The  worth  of  any 
curriculum  to-day  is  judged,  not  by  precision  and  uniformity  of 
subject  matter,  but  by  its  contribution  to  the  life  and  growth  of 
each  child  as  an  individual  in  society.  This  demands  that 
‘‘nature  and  society  live  in  the  schoolroom”  and  that  the  “forms 
and  tools  of  learning”  be  “subordinated  to  the  substance  of 
experience.”1  This  may  be  obtained  by  making  the  home  and 
the  community  vital  factors  in  the  experience  of  the  pupil  during 
the  years  spent  at  school.  The  introduction  of  courses  in  house- 
hold subjects  with  projects  which  bring  the  girls  into  close  contact 
with  their  homes,  and  courses  in  sociology,  based  on  experimental 
studies  of  Chinese  villages,  is  both  possible  and  necessary  in  the 
socialization  of  the  curriculum. 

Courses  are  also  needed  to  prepare  women  to  render  definite 
service  under  the  changing  condition  of  Chinese  society.  The 
Chinese  schoolgirls  have  signified  their  purposes  to  become  physi- 
cians, nurses,  and  teachers.  The  rise  of  the  normal  schools, 
and  the  introduction  of  professional  subjects  in  the  secondary 
schools,  show  that  the  demand  for  preparation  for  teaching  as  a 
vocation  is  becoming  already  insistent.  It  will  not  be  long  be- 
fore the  need  for  training  in  other  vocations  will  be  equally  im- 
perative. It  is  true  that  complete  preparation  for  vocations  and 
professions  cannot  be  accomplished  in  secondary  schools.  On 
the  other  hand,  however,  courses  that  will  help  in  the  first  few 
years  of  teaching,  community  aids  in  sanitation,  hygiene,  nursing, 
and  domestic  economy  are  possible  in  every  higher  primary  and 
middle  school  program.  An  essential  part  of  the  secondary 
school  curriculum  is  to  give  each  girl  a broad  foundation  of 
knowledge  and  thought.  But  it  is  equally  important  that  it  en- 


1 Dewey,  School  and  Society,  p.  56. 


Subjects  in  the  Curriculum 


83 


able  her  to  prepare  for  some  phase  of  effective  social  helpfulness 
whenever  she  is  compelled  to  leave  school. 

The  fundamental  reorganization  of  the  curricula  to  provide 
more  reasonable  programs,  closer  relation  to  community  and  home 
life,  and  more  definite  preparation  for  service,  in  order  that  the 
girls  in  the  schools  may  receive  an  adequate  opportunity  for 
study,  is  an  immediate  task  for  educators  in  China. 


CHAPTER  V 
CONCLUSION 
Summary  of  Results 

The  education  of  girls  in  China  has  been  a definite,  compar- 
atively conscious  process  for  many  centuries.  Among  the  upper 
classes  the  more  fortunate  women  have  been  accomplished,  and 
have  learned  to  read  and  to  write.  Some  have  become  artists 
and  great  scholars.  But  the  majority  of  women,  from  ancient 
times  down  to  the  present  day,  have  known  little  of  the  world 
outside  of  the  inner  courts  of  their  own  homes. 

For  over  nine  hundred  and  ninety  out  of  every  thousand  girls 
in  China  to-day,  education  means  obedience  to  older  members  of 
the  family  and  self-training  to  compliance  in  all  requests.  For 
many  of  these  it  means  also  learning  to  spin  linen  from  flax  and 
silk  from  cocoons,  to  weave  cotton,  to  make  garments  for  every 
member  of  the  family : garments  of  single  thickness  for  summer, 
and  of  double  thickness  padded  with  cotton  for  winter;  to  supply 
hats  for  the  men  and  shoes  for  all,  to  cook  food  with  a stubble  fire, 
to  manage  a family  of  six  on  an  income  below  a living  wage. 
There  is  little  time,  little  thought,  and  no  opportunity  for  learning 
to  read. 

The  first  school  for  girls  which  introduced  Western  subjects  was 
started  by  a missionary  in  1843.  Very  gradually  the  idea  of 
schools  for  girls  permeated  the  nation.  In  1876,  the  increase  of 
numbers  attending  began  to  become  apparent.  In  1898  the 
first  school  under  Chinese  management  was  opened  as  a private 
institution.  In  1907  the  government  established  a system  of 
schools  for  the  education  of  girls.  But  since  the  first  revolution 
in  1911,  there  has  been  a phenomenal  rise  in  the  number  of  girls 
attending  mission,  private  and  government  schools,  and  institu- 
tions are  unable  to  accommodate  those  who  apply  for  admission. 
In  spite  of  this  fact,  however,  probably  fewer  than  ten  in  one 
thousand  girls  are  attending  school.  It  is  estimated  that  eight 
out  of  the  ten  are  in  the  first  four  years  of  the  course.  Approxi- 
mately seven  girls  out  of  ten  thousand  are  attending  the  higher 
84 


Conclusion 


85 


primary  school,  and  three  in  ten  thousand  are  pursuing  a course 
in  the  middle  school.  These  girls  are  in  day  and  boarding  in- 
stitutions situated  for  the  most  part  in  great  cities  along  trade 
routes. 

From  the  study  of  one  thousand  one  hundred  and  seventy-six 
of  the  pupils  of  the  boarding  schools  it  may  be  concluded  that  the 
schoolgirls  of  China  to-day  are  a very  highly  selected  class.  Their 
fathers  are  usually  professional  and  business  men  whose  incomes 
are  between  $500  and  $600  Mexican  per  year.  Over  one  half  of 
the  girls  live  in  dormitories,  and  thus  are  separated  from  their 
homes,  except  for  brief  visits,  during  their  entire  course  in  higher 
primary,  middle  and  normal  schools.  In  the  investigation  of  the 
ambitions  of  this  group  it  was  found  that  almost  one  third  desire 
to  teach. 

The  majority  of  the  girls  are  from  ten  to  eighteen  years  of 
age.  They  enter  school  from  four  to  six  years  older  than  the 
legal  entrance  age.  In  the  first  year  of  the  lower  primary  school, 
and  in  every  year  thereafter,  a large  proportion  are  over-age. 
While  in  school,  the  girls  study  Chinese  literature,  composition 
and  writing;  mathematics,  and  English,  history,  geography,  and 
science  and  in  mission  schools,  Bible.  Usually  five  recitation 
periods  each  week  are  given  to  the  five  subjects,  four  periods  to 
history,  and  three  periods  to  the  last  three  subjects.  A few  girls 
report  one  or  two  recitations  each  week  in  sewing,  household  arts, 
hygiene  and  sanitation.  In  the  middle  school  some  give  time  to 
professional  educational  subjects. 

Recommendations 

In  view  of  the  vast  number  of  girls  still  unreached  by  the 
schools,  a definite  program  for  securing  universal  school  attend- 
ance needs  to  be  worked  out  by  the  authorities  in  government, 
private  and  mission  educational  systems.  If  feasible,  these  three 
agencies  should  follow  one  central  plan  adopted  by  all,  after  a 
careful,  extensive  survey  of  the  situation  in  each  province. 
Such  a provincial  survey  and  plan  would  include  a census  of  the 
population  of  children  of  school  age  and  available  schools  with  the 
present  school  attendance,  and  would  definitely  endeavor  to  reach 
large,  now  untouched  geographical  areas. 

Where  union  provincial  plans  are  impossible,  surveys  of  local 
cities  and  villages,  showing  the  distribution  of  population,  occupa- 


86  The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 

tion  of  citizens,  wealth,  present  school  attendance,  and  classes 
from  which  students  come,  carried  on  by  voluntary  associations 
of  resident  educators,  may  be  accomplished  in  many  educational 
centers.  Some  of  the  results  which  might  be  expected  from  such 
a survey  are:  a definite  plan  for  providing  educational  facilities 
for  now  neglected  districts,  a basis  for  estimating  a feasible 
scheme  for  financing  the  schools,  and  systematic  propaganda 
among  all  social  classes  which  will  enlist  their  enthusiastic  support 
and  secure  a consciousness  of  the  possibility  of  and  desire  for  the 
education  of  every  child.  That  there  is  increasing  interest  in  the 
problem  of  education  is  evident  from  the  sudden  rise  of  the 
number  of  pupils  in  school.  This  interest  should  be  utilized  in 
furthering  the  rapid  extension  of  schools  in  the  democracy  of  the 
East. 

It  is  evident  from  the  investigation  of  this  study  that  special 
attention  must  be  given  to  attendance  problems  in  farmer, 
artisan  and  laborer  classes.  It  is  necessary  that  some  arrange- 
ment be  made  for  the  support  of  girls  in  school  in  order  that  the 
daughters  of  these  great  untouched,  poverty-burdened  classes  be 
given  opportunity  for  education.  Free  schools  are  not  yet 
provided,  for  there  is  no  national  system  of  taxation  for  educa- 
tion,1 and  the  sources  of  revenue  are  entirely  inadequate  to  finance 
the  needed  rapid  increase  in  the  number  of  schools.  At  the  same 
time,  the  extreme  poverty  of  great  masses  of  people  will  doubtless 
prevent  them  from  supporting  either  the  schools  or  the  children 
while  at  school.  This  problem  of  finance  is  one  of  the  greatest 
which  faces  educators  in  China  to-day,  and  will  continue  until 
the  economic  status  of  the  people  be  raised  by  the  wide  use  of 
natural  resources,  and  until  the  public  demand  and  furnish 
education  for  all  children. 

There  is  also  definite  need  that  educational  institutions  find 
some  way  by  which  the  pupils  during  their  years  of  education 
may  be  brought  into  close  contact  with  both  home  and  society. 
Wherever  possible,  the  pupils  attending  school  should  five  at  home 
or  with  relatives.  Home  projects  in  household  work,  in  sanita- 
tion, in  entertainment  through  synopses  of  history,  geography  or 
literature  lessons,  and  home  reading  of  the  newspapers,  should  be 
definitely  planned  and  executed.  Parents  and  friends  may  be 


1 Kuo,  P.  W.,  Chinese  Education  System,  pp.  133,  147. 


Conclusion 


87 


invited  often  to  the  schools  and  made  the  guests  of  groups,  classes 
or  the  whole  school.  For  girls  who  must  live  at  the  school,  a 
“ model  house”  in  which  home  problems  may  be  carried  on  should 
be  an  essential  of  institutional  equipment.  For  older  pupils,  and 
those  in  the  higher  primary  or  middle  grades,  projects  which  will 
involve  study  in  neighboring  villages  will  give  perspective  to  stu- 
dents. By  these,  and  many  other  methods  and  by  constantly 
growing  experimentation  the  girls  may  be  kept  vital  factors  in 
society  while  at  school. 

Moreover,  there  is  need  for  courses  which  give  definite  prepara- 
tion for  some  vocation.  The  changing  social  order  already  de- 
mands new  types  of  education  for  the  Chinese  girl.  Schools  are 
opened  in  rapidly  increasing  numbers.  F or  every  school  a teacher 
is  needed,  and  these  teachers  must  be  trained.  To  the  end  that 
they  may  not  drop  into  a dull  routine,  bounded  by  tradition  and 
limited  by  the  class-room  walls,  the  girls  who  have  expressed  a 
desire  to  enter  this  profession  should  study  the  principles  of 
education,  and  have  opportunity  for  supervised  practice  before 
leaving  school.  This  will  at  least  awaken  in  them  a professional 
consciousness,  and  make  growth  in  service  a probability.  In 
many  communities  there  is  also  need  for  the  social  service  or 
evangelistic  worker.  Schools  may  introduce  courses  in  religion 
and  civic  betterment  that  will  definitely  fit  girls  for  this  work  in 
villages  and  cities.  Business  is  beginning  to  make  a place  for 
women,  and  business  courses  may  supply  the  need  of  some  girls. 
Probably  special  schools  for  advanced  study  in  social  service, 
commerce,  and  industry  will  be  developed  later,  as  they  have  been 
for  education.  Until  vocational  schools  are  within  the  reach  of 
every  girl,  courses  which  will  train  girls  for  the  work  they  must  do 
are  a necessity,  that  girls  who  leave  school  before  they  reach  the 
higher  professional  schools  will  be  fitted  to  render  some  immediate 
contribution  to  their  communities. 

In  order  that  time  may  not  be  wasted,  a universal  entrance 
age  at  six  or  seven  years  should  be  secured  through  propaganda 
and  law  enforcement.  A close  articulation  of  the  systems  of 
government,  private  and  mission  schools  to  provide  efficient 
transfer  and  the  adjustment  of  each  year  schedule  of  study  to  the 
actual  ability  of  the  pupils.  This  will  involve  an  attendance 
department  (perhaps  working  under  a union  committee),  which 
will  seek  to  stimulate  public  opinion  on  school  attendance,  which 

7 


88 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


will  investigate  absences  and  visit  the  homes  of  non-attending 
children  of  school  age.  It  will  involve  a comparison  and  evolu- 
tion of  the  various  courses  of  study  throughout  each  city,  and  offi- 
cial recognition  of  every  school.  It  will  necessitate  the  careful 
study  of  the  progress1  of  every  pupil  and  class,  and  the  constant 
change  of  curriculum  requirements.  There  will  be  need  for  ex- 
tremely flexible  grade  divisions,  frequent  promotions,  wide  indi- 
vidual choice  of  subject  matter  with  special  rooms  for  those  who 
are  either  especially  gifted  or  backward. 

Instead  of  the  overloaded  and  artificial  curriculum  of  Chinese 
reading  and  writing — the  mastery  of  which  is  in  itself  a gigantic 
task — plus  the  Western  subjects  of  arithmetic,  foreign  language, 
Bible,  history,  geography  and  science,  a curriculum  of  studies 
fitted  to  the  needs  of  the  Chinese  girl  is  imperative.  Let  the 
traditional  divisions  of  the  curriculum  be  questioned,  and  let  only 
those  things  be  taught  which  the  pupil,  the  community,  or  the 
nation  demand  for  physical  and  spiritual  well-being  and  growth. 
If  the  schoolgirl  must  read  books,  magazines  and  newspapers, 
teach  her  the  characters  used  in  their  vocabularies.  If  for  effi- 
ciency in  the  school  or  home,  in  cooking  or  household  management, 
she  should  understand  and  apply  the  laws  of  heat,  light  or  food 
changes,  direct  her  to  her  environment  for  the  problems  which  she 
will  meet  daily  in  the  process  of  living.  She  would  keep  herself  in 
good  health:  discuss  with  her  its  laws,  and  make  the  practice  of 
these  laws  an  essential  to  successful  completion  of  the  course. 
If  she  has  an  opportunity  to  assist  in  cleaning  up  a house  or  a 
village,  help  her  to  understand  and  execute  the  principles  of 
sanitation.  If  she  desires  to  speak  with  foreign  people,  or  to  read 
a foreign  literature,  teach  her  those  words  and  phrases  which  she 
will  need.  When  she  becomes  conscious  of  interests  of  her  village 
as  a part  of  the  world  interests,  and  would  study  places  and 
customs  and  trade,  lead  her  into  the  problems  of  geography. 
When  knowledge  of  the  development  of  her  own  and  other  nations 
will  add  to  the  richness  of  her  experience  and  the  comprehension  of 
present-day  movements,  direct  her  into  the  study  of  history. 

1 The  real  progress  of  pupils  in  subjects  has  been  measured  in  America,  and 
some  places  of  China,  by  the  standard  tests.  Only  a very  few — perhaps  those 
in  arithmetic,  drawing  and  sewing,  are  fitted  for  translation,  but  tests  in  various 
subjects  if  such  could  be  made  would  be  very  valuable  in  providing  objective 
measures  of  achievement. 


Conclusion 


89 


When  she  seeks  the  meanings  of  world  tendencies,  of  individual 
life  and  the  relation  of  belief  and  action  discuss  with  her  the 
interpretations  and  questions  of  religion  and  philosophy  Give 
time  for  appreciation  of  sunset  and  river,  melody  and  beauty. 
In  all  of  these  essentials  of  living  it  is  the  privilege  of  the  school 
to  help.  But  the  worth  of  the  school  curriculum  is  not  determined 
by  its  precision  or  completeness  of  outline,  but  by  its  actual  con- 
tribution to  the  growth  of  the  child  who  studies.  Such  a course 
of  study  prepares  for  continual  as  well  as  for  ultimate  service. 
It  calls  for  a fundamental  reorganization  of  the  present  curri- 
culum based  upon  experimental  investigation  of  the  present  needs 
of  the  community,  and  the  life  needs  of  the  Chinese  schoolgirl. 

The  womanhood  of  China  to-day  faces  a new  world.  Soon, 
perhaps  in  this  generation,  the  age-old  duty  of  clothing  her  family 
will  be  entirely  taken  away  from  her,  the  burdens  of  the  house- 
keeping lightened  by  modern  inventions  and  the  standards  of 
living  raised  because  of  increased  incomes.  Citizenship,  per- 
haps enfranchised  citizenship,  in  a republic  will  bring  responsi- 
bilities to  women  as  individuals  and  will  push  the  boundaries  of 
their  thought  life  far  beyond  the  walls  of  their  villages.  Bridges, 
electric  power  plants,  mines  and  railroads  will  shatter  belief  in 
superstitions  and  make  way  for  faith.  Ethical  relationships, 
and  righteous  conduct,  emphasized  for  millenniums  but  limited  to 
the  family,  may  be  broadened  to  those  altruistic  attitudes  which 
link  ambition  for  self  improvement  with  an  unselfish  purpose  for 
service. 

To  those  who  have  undertaken  the  task  of  guiding  education 
for  women  in  this  generation  belongs  the  task  of  experiment, 
measurement  and  adjustment  which  will  give  the  new  woman, 
through  contact  with  life  situations,  a vision  of  her  possibilities. 
Thus  may  the  woman  of  new  China  be  prepared  in  knowledge, 
skill,  and  spirit  to  serve  her  home,  her  community,  her  nation  and 
the  world. 


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Reinsch,  P.  S.  New  Education  in  China.  (Reprint  from  Atlantic  Monthly , 
April,  1909.) 

Reports  of : 

American  Baptist  Missionary  Union,  1856-1909. 

American  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  1909-1917. 

American  Board  of  Commissioners  for  Foreign  Missions,  1833-1915. 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church,  1823-1915. 
Board  of  Foreign  Missions  of  the  Presbyterian  Church,  1833-1917. 
Domestic  and  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Protestant  Episcopal 
Church  of  the  United  States  of  America,  1831-1917. 


90 


Bibliography  91 

North  China  Woman’s  Conference  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
1917. 

School  Committee  of  Brighton,  Mass.,  1849-50. 

Wesleyan  Society. 

Woman’s  American  Baptist  Foreign  Missionary  Society,  1874-1917. 
Woman’s  Foreign  Missionary  Society  of  the  Methodist  Episcopal  Church, 
1873-1917. 

Worlds  Missionary  Conference,  1910,  Vol.  III.  Christian  Education. 
Ross,  E.  A.  The  Changing  Chinese. 

Saxelby,  E.  Mary.  Woman’s  Work  in  Tientsin.  (Pamphlet.) 

Smith,  A.  H.  Village  Life  in  China. 

Strayer,  G.  D.  Some  Problems  in  City  School  Administration. 

Streit,  P.  C.  Atlas  Hierarchicus. 

Triennial  Reports  of  the  China  Educational  Association.  (1899-1902.) 

Williams,  S.  W.  History  of  China. 

Williams,  S.  W.  Middle  Kingdom. 

TRANSLATIONS 

Confucious.  Lun  Yu  (Analects).  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

I King  (Book  of  Changes).  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

Jen  Hsiao.  Nei  Hsun  (Teaching  of  the  Inner  Courts).  Translated  by  I.  T. 

Headland.  (Unpublished.) 

Li  Ki  (Book  of  Rites) . Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

Lu  Chow.  Nii  Heo  (Teaching  for  Women).  Translated  in  The  Chinese 
Repository , Vol.  IX. 

Meng  Tze  (Mencius).  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

San  Tze  King  (Three  Character  Classic).  Translated  in  The  Chinese  Repository , 
Vol.  IV. 

She  King  (Book  of  Odes).  Translated  by  J.  Legge. 

Sung  Jo  Chao.  Nu  Lun  Yu  (Analects  for  Women).  Translated  by  I.  T. 
Headland.  (Unpublished.) 

Tsao,  Lady.  Nii  Chieh  (Instruction  for  Women).  Translated  by  I.  T.  Head- 
land. (Unpublished.) 

Wang  Chieh  Fu.  Nii  Fan  Chieh  Lu  (Short  Records  of  Exemplary  Women). 
Translated  by  I.  T.  Headland.  (Unpublished.) 

CHINESE 

Chiao  Yu  Pu  Wen  Tu  Liao  Piang  (Educational  Documents). 

Chiao  Yu  Pu  Wen  Tu  Lei  Pien  (Educational  Documents). 

Chiao  Yu  Pu  Ching  Chun  Kao  Teng  Hsiao  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling  (Orders  Issued 
by  the  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Higher  Primary 
Schools). 

Chiao  Yu  Pu  Ching  Chun  Haiu  Cheng  Shih  Fan  Hsueh  Hsiao  Kwei  Chu  (Orders 
Issued  by  the  Board  of  Education  on  the  Regulations  for  Normal 
Schools). 

Chung  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling  (Regulations  for  Middle  Schools). 


92 


The  Education  of  Girls  in  China 


Chung  Hwa  Min  Kwoa  Ti  { ^ } Tze  Chiao  Yu  Tung  Chi  Tu  Piao  (Annual 
Statistical  Reports  of  the  Board  of  Education).  1912-13. 

Ku  Chin  Tu  Shu  Chi  Cheng  (The  Encyclopedia). 

Kwoa  Min  Hsueh  Hsiao  Ling  (Regulations  for  Citizens  Schools). 

Lu  Hsiang.  Lieh  Nil  Chwan  (Biographies  of  Eminent  Women). 

PERIODICALS 

ENGLISH 

Catholic  Missions. 

The  Chinese  Recorder. 

The  Chinese  Repository. 

The  Chinese  Students ' Monthly. 

The  Educational  Review. 

The  Spirit  of  Missions. 

Women's  Missionary  Friend  (formerly  Heathen  Women's  Friend).. 

Woman's  Work  in  the  Far  East. 

Woman's  Work  for  Women. 

GERMAN 

Zeitschaftfur  Missions-Wissenschaft. 

CHINESE 

The  Chinese  Weekly. 

The  Chinese  Educational  Review. 


LC2312 .L67 

The  education  of  girls  in  China 


Princeton  Theological  Seminarv-Soppr  i ihraru 


1 J012  00026  4590 


